Silber

[Front Matter and Prefaces]: This segment contains the title page, publication details, and prefaces by the editor and author. It establishes the book as the 13th volume in a series on metallic raw materials, highlighting the historical importance of silver in German mining and its modern technical significance. [Table of Contents]: A comprehensive table of contents outlining the book's structure, covering the properties of silver, extraction methods, economic and monetary history, and geographical occurrences worldwide. [Mineralogy and Geology of Silver]: This section details the physical and chemical properties of silver, comparing it to gold and copper. It provides a detailed classification of silver minerals (sulfides, sulfosalts, halides) and describes the geological formations where silver is found, emphasizing its association with tertiary volcanism and lead-zinc ores. [Chemistry of Silver Compounds]: An overview of the chemical behavior of silver, focusing on its most important compounds. It discusses silver oxide, silver nitrate (Lapis), halides (chloride, bromide, iodide) and their roles in photography, as well as explosive compounds like silver fulminate. [Metallurgy of Silver: General Principles and Amalgamation]: This section introduces silver metallurgy, explaining how extraction differs from gold due to silver's occurrence as a byproduct. It provides a detailed history and technical description of amalgamation processes (Patio, Cazo, Kröhnke, Washoe), noting their decline in favor of cyanidation. [Dry and Wet Extraction Processes]: A technical analysis of dry extraction (cupellation, Parkes and Pattinson processes) and wet extraction (cyanidation, thiosulfate processes). It concludes with the refining (affination) of silver, comparing the Möbius and Balbach-Thum electrolytic methods for achieving high purity. [Silver Alloys and Their Technical Properties]: This section provides a detailed technical overview of various silver alloys and their industrial applications. It discusses the use of high-purity electrolytic silver (99.9% to 99.999%) as a base and examines how additions of copper, gold, beryllium, magnesium, zinc, and other metals alter the hardness, conductivity, and corrosion resistance of silver. Notable mentions include the Japanese 'Shibuichi' alloy, dental amalgams, and the use of silver-lead alloys in the aviation industry for high-stress bearings. [Multi-Component Alloys and Silver Recovery Processes]: The author explores complex three- and multi-component silver alloys, focusing on their roles in the jewelry industry, soldering, and dentistry. It details the properties of silver-copper-zinc and silver-tin amalgams, including their contraction and hardening characteristics. The section also covers silver recovery (regeneration) from industrial waste, silver-plated items, and photographic materials, describing chemical and electrolytic methods for reclaiming the metal. [History of Silver as a Monetary Metal in Antiquity and the Middle Ages]: A historical analysis of silver's role as the primary currency metal from antiquity through the Middle Ages. Kerschagl discusses the fluctuating value ratios between gold and silver (from 13.5:1 to 6:1) across different civilizations, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. It identifies key historical mining sites like Laurion in Greece and mines in Spain, and explains how silver remained the dominant currency despite periodic gold influxes and monetary reforms. [The Impact of the New World and the Decline of Silver's Monetary Status]: This section examines the radical shift in the silver market following the discovery of the Americas and the opening of massive mines like Potosí. The resulting silver flood led to long-term price pressure and eventual demonetization in favor of the gold standard. Kerschagl analyzes various 19th and 20th-century attempts to stabilize silver through 'silver projects' and remonetization plans, while noting that silver's production as a byproduct of other metals (copper, lead, zinc) made supply control impossible. [Silver in the Latin and Scandinavian Monetary Unions]: A detailed history of the 19th-century European monetary unions and their attempts to manage silver. It covers the Latin Monetary Union (France, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, Greece) based on a 15.5:1 ratio and its eventual collapse due to the suspension of free silver coinage and the pressures of WWI. It also contrasts this with the Scandinavian Monetary Union, which was effectively a gold standard system where silver only served as subsidiary coinage. The section concludes that such unions failed to restore silver's status as a primary monetary metal. [Silver Remonetization Plans (1928-1938)]: This section explores the surge in silver remonetization plans between 1928 and 1938, driven by post-WWI deflationary pressures and the interests of silver and copper mine owners. Kerschagl describes how powerful economic interests, including oil companies, funded pro-silver propaganda and influenced political parties like the U.S. Democrats. The author categorizes these plans into groups, starting with those seeking a new bimetallic system with a fixed gold-silver ratio to increase global liquidity and support Asian purchasing power. [The Proposals of Darling: International Currency and the Rex Currency]: Detailed analysis of Darling's proposals for an international currency unit (the 'International Pound') and a 'Rex' currency. Darling argued that Western silver legislation harmed Asian populations and proposed a 20:1 gold-to-silver ratio. His plan involved an international bank managing book transfers of silver and gold to overcome physical weight issues, effectively creating a clearing unit rather than a circulating coin. [American and International Debt-Silver Proposals (Somers, Kemmerer, Hans)]: Examination of various 1930s proposals to link international debt repayment to silver. Somers proposed paying U.S. war debts in silver at a favorable rate, while Kemmerer, Pinnick, and Kann focused on stabilizing silver-based currencies in China and India. Josef Hans proposed an 'International Silver Bank' to absorb the 'floating' silver supply (estimated at 1000 million ounces) to stabilize market prices without necessarily forcing a massive price hike. [The Theories of Gottfried Kunwald and Ernest Zucker]: This segment contrasts the views of Gottfried Kunwald and Ernest Zucker, who both advocated for 'honest' (full-value) silver money. Kunwald proposed a 42:1 ratio and the reminting of all silver coins to be full-value, while Zucker suggested a 50:1 ratio and a requirement for central banks to convert 1% of their circulation into silver annually. Kerschagl notes Kunwald's influence on Austrian coinage policy during the interwar period. [Critique of Remonetization and Symmetallism]: Kerschagl provides a critical evaluation of remonetization plans, highlighting the difficulty of determining a 'natural' silver price and the fact that 2/3 of silver is a byproduct of other metals, making production unresponsive to silver prices. He critiques Symmetallism (proposed by Walras and Marshall), arguing it fails to solve the fixed-ratio problem of bimetallism and would likely result in gold being driven out of circulation by silver (Gresham's Law). [The London Economic Conference and the 'Silver Bible']: Discussion of the 1932 U.S. Monetary Committee report and Senator Pittman's 'Silver Bible'. These proposals moved away from fixed ratios toward international cooperation, such as ending government silver sales and restoring the fineness of coins. Pittman advocated for a massive silver loan to China and an international silver pool. Kerschagl notes that these plans often failed because silver returned to the U.S. market upon repayment, depressing prices further. [French Silver Theories and T.E. Gregory's Final Critique]: The final section reviews French theorists like Patenôtre, who viewed silver remonetization as a 'regulated inflation' preferable to deflation. Kerschagl concludes with T.E. Gregory's skepticism, arguing that bimetallism at a 15.5:1 ratio when the market is at 60:1 is impossible. The author reflects on the U.S. New Deal silver policy and concludes that silver's 3,000-year history as a currency metal has ended in favor of industrial use and manipulated paper currencies. [American Silver Legislation in the 20th Century]: This section details the evolution of American silver legislation through three distinct periods: the New Deal era attempts at remonetization and subsidies, the transition during WWII to industrial substitution for scarce metals like copper and tin, and the post-war era where silver became a permanent industrial staple. It covers key legislative acts including the Thomas Amendment (1933), the Silver Purchase Act (1934), and the Green Act (1943). The text also discusses the international impact of these policies, such as the demonetization of silver currencies in Britain and India to repay Lend-Lease debts, and the eventual failure of the 'Silver Block' to restore a bimetallic standard at Bretton Woods. [Post-War Consolidation and the Failure of Repeal]: Discusses the increasing consolidation of the silver market and the legislative battles in the US Senate to repeal the Silver Purchase Acts. Despite expert testimony favoring repeal to free the currency from the pressure of Silver Certificates, the political influence of the 'Silveritis' from Southern and Southwestern states prevented the abolition of these laws. [History and Development of Silver Prices]: A comprehensive analysis of silver price trends from 1687 to 1959, emphasizing the difficulties in comparing historical prices due to currency fluctuations. It provides extensive data tables for London and New York markets and adjusts for the 1934 dollar devaluation. The author argues that silver prices are no longer governed by simple quantity theory but are heavily influenced by its status as a byproduct of copper, lead, and zinc mining (derivative production) and by speculative and legislative factors. [Economic Factors in Silver Production and Industrial Interdependence]: Explores why silver production often increases even when prices fall, primarily because 75% of silver is a byproduct of other non-ferrous metals. It discusses the interdependence of metal prices, noting that silver accounts for 10-12% of the total value in copper and zinc mining. The section also touches on the technical aspects of silver as an alloy and the historical 'Silver Block' demands for a return to the 1:16 gold-silver ratio. [Supply, Demand, and Global Silver Hoards]: Analyzes the global supply and demand for silver, highlighting the difficulty in estimating private hoards, particularly in India and China (estimated at 4.5 and 2.5 billion ounces respectively). It contrasts the stable industrial-monetary ratio of gold with the shifting dominance of industrial silver use, which by 1960 had reached equilibrium with annual production, providing a stabilizing effect on the market despite the 'Sword of Damocles' represented by large hoards. [Global Distribution of Silver Production]: Provides a geographical breakdown of silver production from 1951 to 1958. North America (Mexico, USA, Canada) dominates with 65-70% of world production. The text notes that in most regions, especially Australia and Canada, silver is almost exclusively a byproduct of other metals. It also contrasts the high silver hoards in Asia with its relatively low production levels. [Industrial and Monetary Applications of Silver]: A detailed survey of the diverse industrial uses of silver. It covers traditional uses like silver plating and photography (silver bromide), and modern applications in electronics (conductors, relays), medicine (surgical instruments, dental alloys), and advanced technology (rockets, atomic power). The section explains the chemical properties that make silver valuable, such as its electrical conductivity and resistance to organic acids. [Techniques and History of Silver Coinage]: Traces the history of silver's monetary use from ancient hammer-striking to modern toggle-lever presses. It describes the metallurgical process of creating silver coins, including melting, rolling, blanching (Weißsieden), and edge-lettering. While silver's role as a primary currency metal has faded, the text notes a resurgence in silver token coinage in Europe (France, Germany, Austria) during the 1950s and the unique status of US Silver Certificates. [Geographical Occurrences of Silver Ores]: Introduces the geographical distribution of silver deposits as of the 1950s. It acknowledges the lack of precise data from the Soviet Union and China but infers production levels based on their copper and non-ferrous metal output. The section emphasizes that modern silver mining is inseparable from the mining of copper, lead, and zinc. [Silberproduktion in Nordamerika: USA und Kanada]: This section details the silver production landscape in North America, focusing on the United States and Canada. In the US, silver is primarily a by-product of zinc, lead, and copper mining, with major deposits located in the western 'silver belt' stretching from the Rocky Mountains through states like Idaho, Utah, and Montana. The text notes the exhaustion of historical centers like Nevada. In Canada, Ontario's Cobalt-City and the Sudbury district are highlighted as significant sources, with silver often appearing alongside nickel, copper, and cobalt. Detailed production statistics for North and Central American countries from 1949 to 1958 are provided in tabular form. [Silberproduktion in Mexiko, Mittel- und Südamerika]: A comprehensive overview of silver mining in Mexico, Central, and South America. Mexico remains a top global producer, though silver is usually found in complex ores with gold, lead, and zinc. Peru and Bolivia are discussed as 'classical' silver regions where production has shifted toward being a by-product of copper or tin (notably in Potosí). The section includes detailed geographical breakdowns of mines in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Colombia, alongside a statistical table showing production trends across South American nations during the 1950s. [Silbervorkommen in Europa und der UdSSR]: This section examines the decline of historical European silver mining and its modern status as a by-product industry. It covers Western Europe (Spain, Portugal, France, UK, Italy), Central Europe (Germany's Harz and Mansfeld regions, Austria's Tyrol), and Scandinavia (Norway's Kongsberg, Sweden's Boliden). It also details production in the Eastern Bloc, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. A significant portion is dedicated to the USSR, where silver is a by-product of copper and nickel; the text notes Soviet silver purchases in the mid-20th century were linked to atomic and rocket research. [Silberproduktion in Australien und Afrika]: This segment covers silver mining in Australia and Africa. In Australia, production is concentrated in Queensland, New South Wales (Broken Hill), and Tasmania, mostly as a by-product of lead, zinc, and copper. In Africa, silver production is relatively low compared to gold. Key regions include the Congo (Katanga), South Africa (where silver is recovered during gold refining at Germiston), and the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The text emphasizes that despite Africa's dominance in gold, it has never been a major silver producer. [Silberproduktion in Asien und Globale Firmenstatistik]: The final geographic survey focuses on Asia, where India and Japan are the leading producers. Silver in Asia is primarily a by-product of lead, zinc, and copper mining. The section notes that while China is a historical 'silver land', its domestic production is modest. The segment concludes with 'Zahlentafel 20', a detailed list of the world's largest silver-producing companies (e.g., ASARCO, Anaconda, Cerro de Pasco, Sunshine Mining) and their output in 1950 vs. 1958. [Bibliographie: Wirtschaft, Währung, Mineralogie und Geographie]: A comprehensive bibliography divided into three categories: Economics/Currency (Wirtschaft, Währung), Mineralogy/Metallurgy, and Geography. It lists key academic works and reference texts used in the study of silver, including multiple works by the author Kerschagl, as well as standard geological and economic atlases. [Bibliography: Statistics and General Literature]: A list of statistical sources and reports concerning the silver market, including publications from London, Washington, New York, and Vienna. It notes that a more extensive bibliography was omitted as the cited works contain their own comprehensive references. [Subject and Person Index (A-Z)]: A comprehensive alphabetical index of subjects and persons mentioned throughout the work. Topics include metallurgical processes (amalgamation, electrolysis), economic concepts (bimetallism, inflation, Gresham's law), and historical figures or economists (Augustus, Keynes, Roosevelt, Kerschagl). [Geographical and Mine Index]: An alphabetical index of locations and specific mines discussed in the text, categorized by continent and country. It covers major silver-producing regions in the Americas (Potosí, Mexico, USA), Europe (Erzgebirge, Laurion), Africa, Asia, and Australia, often referencing specific maps included in the book.