The Problem of Minorities

[Front Matter and Table of Contents]: This segment contains the publication details, editorial board, and table of contents for the September 1926 issue of International Conciliation. It lists the contributing authors and the specific articles and treaties included in the volume regarding the problem of minorities. [Preface by Nicholas Murray Butler]: Nicholas Murray Butler provides a historical overview of the minority problem, tracing it from primitive customs to the 16th-century treaties and the post-WWI League of Nations framework. He introduces the four perspectives (French, Swiss, British, and American) presented in the following articles as contributions to understanding human rights and the reconstruction of Central Europe. [Rights of Minorities in Central Europe by Louis Eisenmann]: Professor Louis Eisenmann analyzes the principles underlying minority rights in Central Europe, distinguishing between their historical/ideal origins (struggle for liberty of conscience) and utilitarian origins (the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian ethnic mosaic). He argues that true democracy cannot exist alongside minority oppression and explains the legal framework where rights are guaranteed by the League of Nations rather than a domestic contract. Eisenmann emphasizes that these rights are individual rather than collective, and that the ultimate goal is moral and civic assimilation through cooperation rather than forced linguistic uniformity. [Minorities and the League by William E. Rappard]: William E. Rappard examines the implementation of the principle of self-determination following the Great War and the subsequent necessity of minority treaties where ethnic populations remained intermingled. He details the specific obligations assumed by states like Poland and Czechoslovakia regarding language, education, and religion. Rappard critiques the League's record of achievement, noting that while the Council is a political body often hesitant to intervene, the constant pressure of international opinion at Geneva serves as a moderating influence against narrow nationalism and the 'fascist ideal'. [The League and Minorities by H. Wilson Harris]: H. Wilson Harris discusses the practical administration of minority protections by the League of Nations. He highlights the difficulty of the 'top dog' becoming the 'bottom dog' in territories like Transylvania and explains the Secretariat's role in mediating grievances. Harris suggests that the League's effectiveness is limited by national sovereignty concerns and proposes the creation of a permanent Minorities Commission, modeled after the Mandates Commission, to handle disputes in a less sensational, more expert environment. [The Protection of Minorities by Raymond Leslie Buell]: Raymond Leslie Buell provides a comprehensive analysis of minority protection through both internal legislation and international treaties. He reviews the failures of pre-war guarantees in the Ottoman Empire and the Balkans, contrasting them with the post-1919 system under the League of Nations. Buell examines specific legal cases, such as the German Settlers in Poland, and discusses the controversial policy of compulsory population exchange between Greece and Turkey. He concludes that while imperfect, these treaties are essential for modifying intolerant nationalism and preventing war, provided they are not used to 'whitewash imperialism'. [Treaty with Poland: Letter from M. Clemenceau to M. Paderewski]: This segment contains the formal letter from Georges Clemenceau to Ignace Paderewski, explaining the requirements for Poland to sign a minority treaty as a condition of its recognition as an independent state. Clemenceau argues that such requirements are an established tradition of European public law (citing the 1878 Congress of Berlin) and are necessary to ensure the protection of diverse populations within new frontiers. He specifically addresses the need for special protections for Jewish citizens and the role of the League of Nations in guaranteeing these rights without placing Poland under the 'tutelage' of the Great Powers. [Treaty Between the Allied Powers and Poland: Preamble and Signatories]: The preamble and list of plenipotentiaries for the treaty between the Principal Allied and Associated Powers and Poland. It establishes the historical context of Poland's restoration and the agreement of the High Contracting Parties to ensure liberty, justice, and guarantees for the inhabitants of the newly sovereign territory. The list includes representatives from the United States, British Empire (including Dominions), France, Italy, Japan, and Poland. [Minority Treaty with Poland: Chapter I - Civil and Political Rights]: This chapter outlines the fundamental legal obligations of Poland toward its inhabitants and minorities. It guarantees protection of life, liberty, and religious freedom regardless of birth, nationality, or race. It defines the criteria for Polish nationality for residents of former German, Austrian, Hungarian, or Russian territories and establishes equality before the law. Specific provisions ensure the right of minorities to use their own language in private and public life, the provision of primary education in minority languages, and the protection of Jewish religious practices, including the Sabbath. The League of Nations is designated as the guarantor of these international obligations. [Minority Treaty with Poland: Chapter II - Diplomatic and Commercial Provisions]: Chapter II addresses the diplomatic and commercial relations between Poland and the Allied and Associated Powers. It establishes the right to appoint diplomatic and consular representatives and sets temporary guidelines for import tariffs and commercial treaties. Poland commits to providing freedom of transit for goods and persons and applies international waterway regulations to the Vistula river system. The section also lists various international conventions regarding telegraphy, railways, sanitation, and labor that Poland agrees to adhere to within specified timeframes. [Treaty Ratification and Annexes]: This segment contains the annexes listing specific international conventions Poland must join, covering telegraphy, railways, sanitation, and the protection of industrial and literary property. It concludes with the formal ratification procedures for the treaty, stating it shall come into force simultaneously with the Treaty of Peace with Germany, with the original copy deposited in the archives of the French Republic. [Bibliography: Protection of Minorities]: A comprehensive bibliography of academic and legal works concerning the problem of minorities and national self-determination following World War I. The list includes English, French, German, and other language sources, featuring prominent authors such as Toynbee, Temperley, and Barnes. It covers topics ranging from the League of Nations' role to specific regional minority issues in Latvia, Hungary, and Turkey. [Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: Personnel and Offices]: A directory of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, listing its leadership, including Director Nicholas Murray Butler, and its special correspondents across Europe and Asia. It also details the members of the Comité d'Administration for the Centre Européen in Paris.