[Front Matter and Preface]: The front matter and preface for a Festschrift honoring Eric Voegelin on his 60th birthday. It outlines Voegelin's contributions to political science, specifically his development of a 'New Science of Politics' rooted in Platonic and Aristotelian ontology. The preface describes his transition from the school of Hans Kelsen to a more reality-oriented, non-positivist approach, highlighting his major work 'Order and History' and his exploration of symbols like myth, philosophy, and Gnosis. [Table of Contents]: A comprehensive table of contents listing the contributors and titles of the essays included in the Festschrift. The topics range from American geistesgeschichte and Greek history to legal philosophy, Marxism, and Islamic atomism, featuring prominent scholars such as Hannah Arendt, Rudolf Bultmann, and Hans Jonas. [Action and the 'Pursuit of Happiness']: Hannah Arendt explores the concept of the 'pursuit of happiness' in the American tradition, distinguishing between private welfare and 'public happiness'—the joy found in political action and participation in public affairs. She contrasts the American experience of local assemblies with the theoretical 'public freedom' sought by French men of letters. Arendt argues that the tradition of political thought, influenced by Platonism, has often failed to articulate the intrinsic value of action, leading to a tension between the establishment of constitutional order and the preservation of the revolutionary spirit. [Erinnerung an Ernest Renan]: Hans Barth introduces an analysis of Ernest Renan, focusing on his political-philosophical writings rather than his famous historical works on Christianity. He discusses Renan's view of Greek rational humanism and the specific role of the Jewish people in introducing the concept of a just God to human culture. [Ernest Renan's Political Philosophy and the Franco-Prussian War]: This segment examines Ernest Renan's political and philosophical contributions during the 19th century, focusing on his advocacy for European federalism and intellectual freedom. It details his correspondence with David Friedrich Strauss during the Franco-Prussian War, where Renan critiques German nationalism based on race and language, proposing instead that a nation is a 'daily plebiscite' based on the will of the people. Renan warns of the dangers of ethnographic politics, predicting that such logic would eventually empower Pan-Slavism against Germany. [Renan's Philosophical Dialogues and the Vision of Scientific Oligarchy]: The text explores Renan's later philosophical works, specifically 'Dialogues philosophiques' and 'L'Avenir de la science'. It describes Renan's shift from democratic optimism to a belief in a scientific elite or 'magistère'. Renan envisions a future where reason rules through absolute power and technological terror, suggesting that knowledge is power only when it can enforce its will. He expresses deep concern over the moral vacuum left by the collapse of traditional religious beliefs, wondering how a noble life can be sustained without 'ancient dreams'. [The Problem of Absolute Power and the Education of the Just]: A transitional passage questioning the feasibility of Renan's scientific oligarchy. It raises the classic problem of 'Quis custodiet custodes?' (Who guards the guardians?) and argues that the ultimate challenge for all political and economic utopias is the education of just individuals to prevent the perversion of absolute power. [Providentia Americana: Origins of Democratic Mission in America]: Karl Dietrich Bracher analyzes the spiritual and historical foundations of American democracy, arguing it is rooted in a unique 'sense of mission' (Sendungsbewusstsein). He traces this from Puritan 'Covenant' theology—viewing the New World as a 'City upon a Hill'—through the secularization of these ideas in the Enlightenment. Key figures like Cotton Mather, Jonathan Edwards, and Roger Williams are discussed to show how religious concepts of Providence were transformed into democratic principles of self-governance, pluralism, and universal human rights, distinguishing American democracy from European models. [The Consolations of Strict Science (Die Tröstungen der strengen Wissenschaft)]: Arnold Brecht discusses the relationship between Eric Voegelin's religiously grounded history and the 'scientific value relativism' of the 20th century. Brecht defends the 'strict science' (scientia transmissibilis) which, while unable to prove metaphysical truths or absolute values like human equality, provides essential 'consolations' by clarifying the consequences of political choices. He argues that recognizing the limits of science forces individuals to accept personal moral responsibility for their values, which cannot be offloaded onto scientific certainty. [Understanding History in Greek and Christian Thought]: Rudolf Bultmann contrasts the Greek cyclical and naturalistic view of history with the Christian linear and teleological perspective. While Greeks like Thucydides saw history as a repeating pattern of human nature, the Judeo-Christian tradition introduced the concept of a goal-directed history (Heilsgeschichte) governed by divine Providence. Bultmann highlights St. Augustine's discovery of the 'person' and 'will' as central to history, concluding that the meaning of history is found not in a grand overview of the past, but in the existential responsibility of the individual in the 'now'. [Literature of the Spanish Civil War: A Global Perspective]: Rafael Calvo-Serer provides a comprehensive survey of the literature surrounding the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). He analyzes how the conflict became a universal symbol for the struggle between democracy, fascism, and communism. The segment covers the 'Lost Generation' (Hemingway, Malraux), the disillusionment of former communists (Koestler, Spender, Orwell), and the perspectives of Catholic thinkers (Bernanos, Maritain, Campbell). Calvo-Serer argues that the war was a prelude to the Cold War and that its literary legacy reflects the 20th century's crisis of freedom and authority. [Red and Brown: Genesis of the Crisis of Authority]: Henry Deku explores the 'Red and Brown' (Communist and Nazi) crisis of authority by tracing the decline of classical Natural Law. He contrasts the traditional view of the state as a servant of the human person and divine truth (Cicero, Aquinas) with the modern 'reason of state' and legal positivism. Deku argues that when the state loses its moral-rational foundation, it resorts to coercion and total claim over the individual, leading to the chronic political crises of the 19th and 20th centuries. He emphasizes that true authority is based on truth, not mere will or power. [The Secularization of the State and the Loss of Rational Norms]: This segment explores the transition from religious to state-centered salvation, citing Moses Hess on the role of the state in fulfilling church promises. It critiques the shift from Platonic rational norms to a 'materialistic' attachment to the collective or the 'Thou,' leading to a pseudo-religious deification of social bonds and the loss of transcendent normative grounding. [Traditionlessness and the Erosion of Intellectual Resistance]: The author discusses how a lack of tradition and a purely factual education system have weakened intellectual resistance in Germany. Citing Hegel and Grillparzer, the text argues that the constant desire for historical reinterpretation and political experimentation leads to a loss of binding norms and a retreat into collective conformity. [The Roots of Anti-Western Sentiment and Irrationalism]: This section traces the origins of modern political crises to 18th and 19th-century German thought, specifically the anti-Western resentment found in Lessing, Herder, and Fichte. It analyzes the replacement of transcendent reason with irrational historical forces (History, Will, Life) and the subsequent shift from idealistic 'freedom' to the brutal 'Realpolitik' of the 19th century. [Fichte's Police State and the Utopian Republic]: A detailed examination of Fichte's political and social prescriptions, contrasting his reputation as a philosopher of freedom with his proposals for a total surveillance state and a highly regulated 'Republic of Germans.' The text quotes extensively from Fichte's descriptions of mandatory identity passes, state-monitored movement, and a secularized, state-controlled church ritual involving cremation and civic 'sermons' by botanist-preachers. [The Deification of the State and the Crisis of Authority]: The author critiques the 'anti-humane' deification of the state in German Idealism, where the state becomes an idol and the source of its own authority. It traces the path from Fichte's immanentized divinity to Treitschke's glorification of war and power, arguing that this intellectual tradition replaced universal moral norms with historical necessity and 'academic gnosis.' [Legal Positivism and the Intellectual Path to 1933]: This segment analyzes how legal positivism (Kelsen) and the 'heroic' socialism of thinkers like Sombart and Spengler prepared the academic ground for National Socialism. It argues that by separating law from ethics and defining law as a mere 'coercive order with any content,' German legal and political theory legitimized the absolute decisionism and brutality of the 20th-century dictatorships. [Kritik an der metaphysischen Revolution: Marx versus Bauer]: This segment analyzes the intellectual dialogue between Karl Marx and Bruno Bauer regarding the 'Jewish Question' within the context of Young Hegelian radicalism. It explores how both thinkers utilized the Jewish Question as a symbol for a broader metaphysical revolution aimed at overcoming human alienation. While Bauer focused on the 'critical' destruction of religious consciousness, Marx deepened the critique by identifying the secular 'Jewish spirit' (egoism and money) as the core of the modern bourgeois state, arguing that true human emancipation requires the abolition of the social conditions that produce such alienation. [Die gnostische Wurzel des modernen Irrationalismus]: The text examines the transition from rationalism to a formalistic and historical irrationalism, tracing the 'softening' of the spirit as it abandons eternal truths for historical necessity. It critiques thinkers like Heidegger and Spengler for their roles in legitimizing totalitarian ideologies (both 'Brown' and 'Red') through the glorification of 'hardness' and the 'destiny of history.' The author argues that this development is a gnostic perversion where man attempts self-salvation through the 'total mobilization' of life and the rejection of traditional morality. [Probleme der Genesis der Hochkulturen]: Alois Dempf discusses the origins of high civilizations from a universal-historical perspective, moving beyond simple power-political or economic explanations. He explores the transition from primitive life-communities to institutionalized 'life-powers' characterized by a distinct intelligence (clergy and officials) and a symbolic legal culture. The segment highlights the role of monarchic theism and the development of 'right-knowledge' (Rechtswissen) as foundational elements that distinguish high cultures from earlier social forms. [Fragen der zeitgenössischen Geschichtsschreibung]: Friedrich Engel-Janosi reflects on the state of contemporary historiography, contrasting the confidence of 19th-century historians like Ranke with the modern awareness of history's 'fragmentary' nature. He discusses the evolution of historical method, the influence of natural sciences on historical thinking, and the resurgence of universal history through figures like Spengler and Toynbee. The essay emphasizes that history is not merely a collection of facts but requires the 'imagination' to re-live the past and understand the interconnectedness of human events. [Thucydides and International Politics Today]: Peter J. Fliess draws a parallel between the bipolar power structure of the Peloponnesian War (Athens vs. Sparta) and the post-1945 international order. He argues that Thucydides' analysis of power dynamics, fear, and the inevitability of conflict in a bipolar system remains relevant for understanding the Cold War. The segment examines the difficulties of neutrality, the role of ideological 'constitutional conformity' as a tool for imperial control, and the persistence of the 'cold war' as a state where the line between peace and war is permanently blurred. [Man, Common and Uncommon: The Political Person]: Carl J. Friedrich explores the concept of the 'political person' by defining five basic traits of human nature: communal living, adaptability, purposiveness, self-hood, and language. He rejects both rationalist overestimations and elitist dismissals of the 'common man,' arguing instead for a 'belief in the common man' based on the unpredictable distribution of political judgment and character. The segment posits that political communities are built on the interaction of 'selves' who use language to communicate purposes and adapt to changing situations. [Karl Marx und Bruno Bauer: Die Gnosis der Revolution]: Jürgen Gebhardt examines the intellectual relationship between Karl Marx and Bruno Bauer, focusing on their transformation of Hegelianism into a gnostic political movement. The segment details how their debate over the 'Jewish Question' served as a vehicle for a 'metaphysical revolution' against the existing world order. Gebhardt traces the development of their thought from academic debate to revolutionary activism, highlighting how their 'secularization' of religious symbols led to a totalizing ideology that sought to recreate man and society through the destruction of traditional transcendence. [The Attitude Toward Rome in Third-Century Judaism: From Daniel to Akiba]: This section explores the evolution of Jewish attitudes toward Roman rule from the period of Daniel to the Bar Kokhba revolt. It details the early expectation of a divinely mandated end to heathen rule and the establishment of a Jewish kingdom, contrasting this with the eventual recognition of Roman authority by figures like Josephus and Johanan ben Zakkai. The text highlights how the failure of active, political Messianism led to a significant modification in Jewish theory regarding the 'fourth kingdom' (Rome). [The Theological Recognition of Roman Dominion]: The author discusses the theological shift where the greatness of Rome began to be viewed as part of a God-willed historical order. Speeches by Agrippa and Josephus suggest that authority was transferred from Israel to Rome by divine intent. The section examines how second-century masters like Simeon ben Yohai and Meir began to postpone the urgency of divine intervention, tacitly recognizing Rome's present dominion while maintaining a distant hope for ultimate restoration. [The Third-Century School of Johanan bar Nappaha]: This segment focuses on the 3rd-century school of Johanan bar Nappaha in Tiberias, which classicized the shift from militant, history-centered Messianism to a passivist, meta-historical doctrine. It lists the key disciples and contemporaries of Johanan, such as Simeon ben Lakish and Joshua ben Levi, and sets the stage for an analysis of talmudic-midrashic material that illustrates the changed Judaic image of Rome. [The Power and Origin of Rome in Jewish Thought]: The text examines how 3rd-century Jewish literature characterized Roman power, often identifying it as the 'fourth beast' of Daniel's vision. While acknowledging Rome's strength and its role in safeguarding the rights of men (dikaion), the masters also linked Rome's origin to Israel's own religious failings (e.g., Solomon's marriage to Pharaoh's daughter). The section notes a more nuanced view where God is seen as the creator of both Jews and Gentiles, tempering the desire for Rome's immediate destruction. [The Postponement of the Messianic Age]: This section describes the transition from an urgent, imminent Messianic expectation to a distant, hypothetical one. Masters like Johanan and Simeon ben Lakish argued that the time of the end was hidden by God, discouraging calculations of the 'end' and emphasizing patient waiting. The focus shifted from the historical Messianic period to the 'world to come' (olam ha-ba), which was viewed as the true and final redemption known only to God. [The Positive Revaluation of Exile and Suffering]: The author explains how the 3rd-century masters reinterpreted the state of exile (galut) as a positive, divinely planned condition. Rather than seeking immediate liberation, they focused on the spiritual benefits of dispersion, such as the preservation of the people and the gaining of proselytes. Suffering was viewed as a means of purification and a way to turn Israel toward righteousness, with the present era seen as a time for exploring Israel's past rather than forcing a change in its political fate. [Non-Resistance and the Disvaluation of Human Agency]: This segment details the 3rd-century critique of man-made redemptions (such as those of the Hasmoneans) and the resulting advocacy for political passivity. Johanan and his school argued that true redemption must come from God alone, not 'flesh and blood.' This led to a disvaluation of prophecy in favor of divine action and a call for non-resistance against the 'four kingdoms.' In cases of religious coercion, the response was to be martyrdom rather than rebellion. [The Centrality of Sinai, Torah, and Divine Mercy]: The final section of the chunk discusses the shift in focus from the eschaton to the Revelation at Sinai. The study of Torah became the primary mode of spiritual existence, effectively replacing the urgency of historical redemption. The text also highlights the ethical teachings of the period, which emphasized 'hesed' (loving concern) and 'rahamim' (divine mercy) extending even to the heathen nations. The ultimate preservation of the world is attributed not to power, but to the innocence of children studying Torah. [Israel's Withdrawal from the World and the Theology of Extra-Historical Existence]: This segment explores the third-century Jewish theological shift toward withdrawal from the political world and the rejection of historical Messianism in response to Roman rule. It details the covenantal relationship between God and Israel, emphasizing Israel's isolation and its focus on the Torah as a means of survival. The text contrasts this Jewish 'extra-historical existence' with Christianity's alliance with Rome, noting how the Messianic idea was reinterpreted as a restoration of cosmic harmony outside of human political action. [Ueki Emori: A Champion of Democratic Freedoms in Meiji Japan]: An analysis of the life and political thought of Ueki Emori, a key figure in the Japanese movement for freedom and people's rights (Jiyū Minken Undō) during the Meiji era. The essay describes the three phases of Meiji political development, Emori's education in Western sciences, and his advocacy for a representative parliament and natural rights. It highlights his intellectual conflicts with conservatives like Katō Hiroyuki and his imprisonment for criticizing the government's restrictions on free speech, specifically through his provocative article comparing autocracy to turning humans into monkeys. [The Disenchantment of the Intellectuals]: This essay examines the rise and subsequent 'disenchantment' of the modern secular intellectual, beginning with the 18th-century philosophes. It traces the shift from Christian/classical metaphysics to an anthropocentric doctrine of progress and rationalism. The author discusses precursors like Siger de Brabant and Joachim of Flora, the 'realism' of Machiavelli and Hobbes, and the eventual crisis of these ideals in the 20th century. Detailed case studies of Harold Laski's shift toward Soviet Communism and Albert Camus's critique of metaphysical revolt illustrate the contemporary struggle to find orienting standards after the 'death of God'. [Die „Politische Formel“ (The Political Formula)]: Drawing on Gaetano Mosca's concept of the 'political formula,' this segment analyzes the theoretical foundations of political order and legitimacy. It argues that every state rests on an unprovable 'formula' (e.g., divine right, popular sovereignty) that must be believed by the governed to grant authority. The essay distinguishes between 'opposition' (fighting within the same formula) and 'resistance' (rejecting the formula itself). It also explores the tension between democracy and parliamentarism and the role of representation as a secularized theological concept. [Plotin über Ewigkeit und Zeit (Plotinus on Eternity and Time)]: A detailed philosophical interpretation of Plotinus's Ennead III 7. Hans Jonas examines the distinction between eternity (the life of the Intellect/Nus) and time (the life of the Soul). The text defines eternity as a simultaneous, infinite presence ('everything at once') and time as a successive unfolding or 'self-temporalization' of the Soul's life. Jonas highlights Plotinus's departure from classical physical definitions of time (as measure of motion) toward a spiritualized, internal origin, prefiguring modern existential and phenomenological concepts of temporality. [Plotinische Texte zur Allseele und dem Abstieg in die Materie]: A collection of translated excerpts from Plotinus' Enneads (I 8, IV 7, IV 3, V 2) illustrating the relationship between the Soul (Allseele), the Intellect (Nus), and the material world. The texts describe the soul's descent from a state of pure contemplation of the Nus into a state of 'unboundedness' and 'darkness' as it creates and occupies the physical body and space. It highlights the soul's creative drive (orexis) and the hierarchical progression from the higher soul to the vegetative and animal souls (growth power), characterized by a movement away from the origin toward the 'worse'. [Individual Souls and the Origin of Evil in Plotinus]: This segment explores Plotinus's views on individual souls, their descent from the divine realm, and the origin of evil through 'tolma' (audacity). It discusses the soul's relationship to the body and its movement between the intelligible and sensible worlds, concluding an excursus on the nature of the soul. [The Metaphysics of Time and the Soul's Activity]: A detailed analysis of Plotinus's theory of time as the life of the soul in movement. It contrasts time with eternity, argues that time is generated by the soul's activity, and discusses the relationship between the movement of the universe and the inner movement of the soul. [Homo Homini Homo: The Anthropological Creed of Carl Schmitt]: Heinz Laufer examines the state of political science in Germany and critiques Carl Schmitt's 'anthropological creed.' He analyzes Schmitt's fundamental distinction between friend and enemy, his pessimistic view of human nature as 'evil by nature,' and the connection between political theology and state theory. [The Ontological Roots of Political Theory: From Plato to Hobbes]: Laufer continues his critique by contrasting Schmitt's views with the classical and Christian traditions. He references Eric Voegelin's restoration of philosophical anthropology to political science, discussing the 'mature man' in Aristotle, the 'amor Dei' vs. 'amor sui' in Augustine, and the 'decayed' anthropology of Hobbes that informs modern political thought. [Law from a Religious Perspective]: Luis Legaz y Lacambra explores the tension between legal and religious existence. He contrasts Catholic natural law traditions with Protestant views on the secularization of law (Luther), discusses the 'unauthenticity' of the social sphere (Kierkegaard, Heidegger), and examines whether 'Christian law' is a coherent concept. [The Unconditional Legal Value of Man: Dignity and Freedom]: René Marcic argues for the pre-positive legal value of human dignity and freedom. Drawing on Voegelin, Aristotle, and Aquinas, he posits that the order of being is inherently a legal order. He critiques legal positivism and voluntarism (Scotus, Hobbes, Nietzsche) in favor of a rationalist ontology where the state's power is limited by the inherent dignity of the person. [What is Unworthy of Man: Ontological Rank and Bioethical Prohibitions]: This section explores the ontological rank of man within the cosmic order, arguing that human dignity is inviolable and immediate. It derives specific bioethical and legal prohibitions from this dignity, including bans on killing the unborn (nasciturus), artificial insemination, human experimentation, and the use of drugs or narco-analysis to manipulate the human psyche. The author warns against the 'perfect welfare state' described by Dostoevsky and Tocqueville, which threatens human dignity by smothering the conscience through total security and fulfillment of material desires. [To Command is to Persuade: Reason and Human Nature]: The author argues that human dignity requires that individuals be addressed through reason rather than force. Drawing on Aristotle and Aquinas, the text posits that 'to command is to persuade' (per modum suadentis), as man is a being defined by logos. While positive law may involve coercion, the ontological ideal is for the human will to be moved through conviction and appeal to the rational ground. [The Ontology of Freedom: Freedom as a Law of the Universe]: This segment defines freedom not merely as a psychological state but as a fundamental 'building law' of the universe (Baugesetz des Universums). Using Thomistic thought, it argues that the hierarchy of being requires a category of existence capable of self-determination. Freedom is the point where macrocosmos and microcosmos meet. The text cites Anselm of Canterbury to show that rational nature preserves the cosmic order through free will (sponte) rather than necessity. [The Absolute Legal Value of Man: Divine Transcausality and Autonomy]: The author discusses the 'transcausality' of God's action, which grants ontological autonomy to human freedom. Because God respects the order He created, even divine power (potestas ordinata) does not override human freedom. The text argues that if God Himself respects human freedom as a legal barrier, then no earthly community or state has the right to suppress it or treat it as a 'quantité négligeable'. [Freedom as the Apriori of Law]: Drawing on the work of Ernst von Hippel, this section establishes freedom as a structural element of law. It argues that law does not logically or physically determine man but rather takes his freedom as its starting point. Freedom is the 'apriori' that constitutes the relationship between pre-positive and positive legal systems. [The Political Manifestation of Freedom: Cosmos and Polis]: This section traces the history of freedom in the West, beginning with the Greek 'polis' and the Roman 'libertas'. It explores the bond between the cosmic order (cosmos) and the political order (polis), where freedom is understood as self-legislation (autonomia). The author uses Heraclitus's Fragment 93 regarding the Delphic Oracle to illustrate how cosmic order provides signs without destroying the human freedom of decision, establishing freedom as the 'ratio' of the logos. [The Components of Political Freedom: Equality, Order, and Law]: The author outlines three aspects of political freedom: its relation to equality (isonomia), its integration within order, and its character as a form of unconstrained living (potestas vivendi ut velis). It critiques 'paleo-liberalism' for neglecting the social component of freedom. The section emphasizes the principle 'in dubio pro libertate' (in doubt, for freedom) and highlights the reciprocal relationship between individual and communal freedom. [The Rule of Law and the Limits of Power]: This final section of the chunk analyzes the political order through three questions: Who holds power? How is it exercised? And what are its legal limits? It distinguishes between legitimate rule (rule of law) and tyranny (quoad titulum or quoad exercitium). The author argues that the Western political tradition is defined by 'imperium limitatum'—the constant struggle against the omnipotence of the state. Key concepts discussed include subsidiarity, institutional pluralism, and the principle that laws, not men, should govern (nomocracy). [V. Die Eigenwürde des menschlichen Gesetzgebers]: This section explores the dignity and freedom of the human legislator within the framework of natural law and the divine order. It argues that while positive law is a product of human freedom and autonomy, it must respect pre-positive structural elements such as human dignity to remain legitimate. The text references Thomas Aquinas to illustrate the wide range of discretion granted to human lawgivers within the bounds of the order of being. [Zusammenfassung: Aufgaben der Gegenwart – Ausblick in die Zukunft]: A concluding summary reflecting on the contemporary challenges to human dignity and freedom. It cites Eric Voegelin on the dangers of political apathy in a democracy and discusses new dimensions of rights, such as the right to an inner life and protection against psychological manipulation. The text argues that the state has a positive duty to shield the individual's dignity not only from public power but also from uncontrolled private and social forces, referencing dystopian visions by Orwell, Dostoevsky, and Tocqueville. [Politische Theorie, pragmatisches Denken und historischer Sinn in den Reformideen des Freiherrn vom Stein]: An extensive analysis of the political thought and reform ideas of Baron vom Stein. The essay challenges the binary classification of Stein as either a pure rationalist or a reactionary opponent of the Enlightenment. Instead, it positions Stein within a tradition of moderate liberalism and empiricism influenced by Edmund Burke and the Göttingen school (Rehberg, Brandes). The text contrasts the 'natural law' radicalism of the French Revolution (Rousseau) with the 'empiricist' and historical approach of Stein and Burke, emphasizing Stein's belief in organic development and the use of historical institutions like estates (Stände) to achieve moral and political progress. [Die Rolle der Ideologie in der Fünften Republik]: Armin Mohler analyzes the political structure of the French Fifth Republic, characterizing it as a 'one-man regime' centered on Charles de Gaulle. He argues that there is a massive gap between the regime's lofty ideology and its pragmatic, often stagnant reality. Mohler describes de Gaulle's unique 'political style'—using psychological shocks, oratory, and a method of 'intoxication' (planned obfuscation) to manage the liquidation of the French colonial empire (specifically Algeria) while maintaining the appearance of national grandeur. The essay concludes that while this style erodes civic trust, it also performs a necessary 'clearance' of outdated French ideologies. [Babeuf and the Total Critique of Society]: Gerhart Niemeyer traces the intellectual origins of 'revolution as a vocation' and the total critique of society back to Gracchus Babeuf and his 18th-century mentors: Jean Meslier, Morelly, and Mably. The essay argues that these thinkers moved beyond specific grievances to a 'gnostic' rejection of the entire existing social and moral order. Meslier's atheistic materialism and Morelly's 'Code of Nature' provided the framework for viewing historical society as a 'false' reality that must be totally destroyed to recover a hidden natural order. Niemeyer distinguishes Mably's reformist socialism from the radical, destructive 'permanent revolution' of Meslier and Babeuf, which ultimately leads to totalitarian power and terror. ['Niemand kann zwei Herren dienen']: Georg Pfligersdorffer examines the early Christian struggle with the Roman environment through the lens of the biblical maxim 'No one can serve two masters.' He discusses the critique of Celsus, who saw Christian monotheism as a 'voice of rebellion' against the traditional order of 'sub-gods' (national demons/genii) that legitimized the Roman state. The essay traces the evolution of this conflict from the intransigence of the martyrs to the political theology of Eusebius and finally to Augustine's 'City of God.' Augustine is presented as restoring the necessity of choice between the 'love of self' (earthly city) and the 'love of God' (heavenly city), rejecting the idea of a neutral 'human city' or a state-sanctioned synthesis of divine and worldly authority. [Das Dilemma der politischen Ethik bei Max Weber]: This essay analyzes Max Weber's struggle with the tension between ethics and politics. It situates Weber in opposition to the 19th-century German tradition of 'Realpolitik' (Treitschke) and the hypostasization of the state (Hegel). Schmülz examines Weber's concepts of 'Value Freedom' (Wertfreiheit) and the 'Idealtypus,' noting that Weber's science was limited by his inability to access a rational order-science. The core of the essay is the distinction between the 'Ethics of Conviction' (Gesinnungsethik) and the 'Ethics of Responsibility' (Verantwortungsethik). Weber argues that the politician must embrace the latter, accepting the 'diabolical' nature of power and the responsibility for the consequences of their actions, even when using morally suspect means to achieve good ends. [Historische Werturteile bei Heinrich Leo]: A brief introductory segment or quote regarding Heinrich Leo's views on the German Reich and national morality, framing the Reich as an 'invisible' spiritual necessity for the German people. [I. Allgemeinwürdigung: Heinrich Leo as Historian]: This section provides a general appreciation of Heinrich Leo (1799–1878), a complex historian who blended Lutheran orthodoxy with Hegelian and Romantic influences. The author, Hans Joachim Schoeps, compares Leo to Leopold von Ranke, noting that while Leo lacked Ranke's source-critical methodology, his passionate subjectivity and 'Höllen-Breughel' style made his historical narratives uniquely memorable. The segment also discusses Leo's 'Lehrbuch der Universalgeschichte' and his philosophical intention to present history as the revelation of divine thoughts from a Christian standpoint. [II. Deutsche Frühzeit und Mittelalter: The Ideal of the Corporate State]: Leo's historical value judgments regarding the German early period and the Middle Ages are analyzed. His ideal is the 'Germanic-Christian state' of the High Middle Ages, characterized by a priestly-feudalist corporate structure. Leo consistently sides with the Papacy over the Emperors in the Investiture Controversy, praising Pope Gregory VII while harshly criticizing Frederick II as an 'unpious' precursor to the modern centralized state. The section highlights Leo's use of 'philosophie engagée' to critique modern developments from a medievalist standpoint. [III. Vorreformation und Reformation: The Critique of Protestantism]: This segment examines Leo's controversial views on the Reformation. Despite being a Protestant, Leo critiques the Reformation for destroying the organic authority of the Church and the apostolic succession of bishops, which he views as a 'Germanic' institution. He draws a direct line from the Reformation's rejection of authority to the French Revolution. The section includes psychological portraits of Savonarola and Jan Hus, as well as Leo's 'völkerpsychologische' (ethno-psychological) reflections on the differences between Germanic and Slavic peoples in the context of the Hussite movement. [IV. Das Zeitalter der Religionskriege: Political Conflicts and National Character]: Leo's treatment of the 16th-century religious wars is marked by a defense of legitimacy and the House of Habsburg. He views the Dutch Revolt not as a struggle for religious freedom but as a 'deplorable insurrection' driven by mercantile interests and a restless nobility. He justifies the actions of the Duke of Alba and shows little sympathy for William of Orange. Similarly, he interprets the French Wars of Religion through the lens of French 'petulance' and political interest rather than pure theology. [Heinrich Leo's View on the Reformation and the Thirty Years' War]: This segment continues the analysis of Heinrich Leo's historical perspectives, focusing on his critical view of the Reformation in France, Sweden, and Ireland, as well as his unconventional assessment of the Thirty Years' War. Leo interprets these events through the lens of political interests rather than purely religious motives, offering a particularly harsh critique of Gustav Adolf as a foreign interventionist who damaged German national interests. He also provides surprising praise for Oliver Cromwell as a pious figure, while maintaining a generally skeptical stance toward the 'Protestant heroes' of history. [V. Modern Times: Prussia and the French Revolution]: Leo examines the modern era, viewing the French Revolution as a necessary but horrific punishment for the 'lies' of the Ancien Régime, while criticizing Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Montesquieu. He identifies the rise of the Prussian state and its army as the only positive development in modern history, emphasizing Prussia's non-confessional character and the moral energy of Frederick William I over Frederick the Great. The segment also details the fierce contemporary criticism Leo faced from Karl Friedrich Köppen (a friend of Karl Marx) regarding his polemical and allegedly plagiarized style. [VI. Final Assessment: Leo as a Political Historian]: The final assessment of Heinrich Leo characterizes him as a 'partisan historian' who used history to issue moral judgments and influence contemporary politics, in contrast to Ranke's objective approach. Leo's ultimate goal was an 'Evangelical Catholicity'—a reunification of the Christian churches based on the Augsburg Confession, which he believed was the only path to overcoming the spiritual decay of the modern world. His historical revisions of the Reformation and the Dutch Revolt were intended to remove the 'blind hatred' between confessions and pave the way for this reconciliation. [The Artwork as Cosmion: I. A Thing]: Gregor Sebba introduces the concept of the artwork as a 'Cosmion,' a term borrowed from Eric Voegelin. He begins by analyzing the 'thing-character' of art, using the anecdote of a found stone to illustrate how any object possesses an infinite field of potential meanings and structures. Sebba argues that an artwork is a well-ordered 'order of orders' (complexity) that exists both internally (its physical and historical structure) and externally (its relationship to its environment and observers). [The Artwork as Cosmion: II. Complexity]: Sebba defines complexity as the 'order of orders' within an artwork, distinguishing between internal complexity (form and content) and temporal complexity (historical context). He introduces the 'climactic line method' for interpretation, suggesting that a single point in a work can reveal its entire structural law. He also discusses the problem of 'rank,' arguing that higher-ranking artworks possess greater internal structural complexity and invariance across time, allowing for richer interpretations than simpler works like folk songs or 'Yankee Doodle.' [The Artwork as Cosmion: III. Order]: Sebba explores 'Order' as the aspect of artistic law that distinguishes art from accidental forms. He argues that the creation of a complex artwork is not a calculated process but the incarnation of a pre-existing 'order-idea' or 'work-law' (Werkgesetz) that can even incorporate chance. This law is synonymous with 'Style,' which Sebba defines as the individual essence and structural unity of the work. The segment concludes by linking the theory of the artwork to broader doctrines of creation and genetics, moving beyond mere aesthetics. [Intensity as the Criterion of the Artwork]: This section explores 'Intensity' as the defining characteristic that distinguishes an artwork from a mere object. The author argues that the experience of art is an immediate identification that confronts the observer's internal, often chaotic universe with the 'well-ordered' cosmion of the artwork. This encounter is described as an epiphany of pure order that fundamentally changes the observer, moving beyond mere rational analysis or emotional 'Ergriffenheit' (being moved). [The Cosmion and the Truth of Art]: The author discusses the artwork as a 'cosmion'—a particle of reality that is perfectly ordered, contrasting it with the 'stubborn facts' of the experienced world. The validity of an artwork is not found in a correspondence theory of truth but in its internal order. Even non-art objects or philosophical systems, like Spinoza's 'more geometrico', can be experienced as artworks when they appear as an epiphany of pure order. [The Ego and the Creative Act: Art as Order]: This section examines the relationship between the creator, the artwork, and the observer's ego. Art is defined as an 'act of establishment' that restructures human experience into a stable form. The author argues that significant art often anticipates new modes of sensibility, requiring the observer to 'learn' the experience before the work becomes transparent. Ultimately, the encounter with art is an existential and religious act, forcing a decision between the lower order of habitual life and the higher order of the artistic cosmion. [Social Norms as Legal Norms: A Systematics of Legal Doctrines]: Arthur-Fridolin Utz introduces a systematic investigation into how social life norms become legal norms. He defines law as an enforceable order of peace and poses the central question of legal philosophy: what are the norms of this peace order? He states his intention to categorize possible legal philosophies rather than individual authors. [The Division Between Positivism and Natural Law: Thomistic Perspective]: Utz analyzes the distinction between natural law and positive law from a Thomistic perspective. For Aquinas, law is an adjustment between people based either on the 'nature of the thing' (natural law) or on agreement/authority (positive law). Utz notes that from this realist standpoint, any philosophy rejecting universal essences (moderate realism) is effectively positivist, including historical or sociological legal theories. [Modern Perspectives on Legal Positivism]: Utz defines modern legal positivism as the view that law is derived solely from empirical sources (biological drive, social pressure, or state power) without being limited by aprioric ethical norms. He distinguishes between individual-ethical and social-ethical positivism, noting that legal positivism necessarily implies social-ethical positivism. He also discusses Kelsen's 'Grundnorm' as a logical postulate that remains within the positivist framework despite its aprioric appearance. [Defining Natural Law and Case Examples]: Natural law is defined as a legal foundation that recognizes an aprioric idea of justice above effective social norms. Utz uses the post-war German legal debate over Nazi-era judges and cases involving public morality (e.g., the Sade affair and German Federal Court rulings on sexual morality) to illustrate how courts appeal to 'unalterable commands of the moral law' even when they seek to anchor these in positive sources. [Systematics of Natural Law: Personhood and Rationalism]: Utz begins a systematic overview of different natural law traditions. He discusses the 'dignity of the person' as a foundational material value (referencing Kant's categorical imperative) and contrasts it with the individualistic-rationalist catalogues of rights from the Enlightenment. He argues that purely formal principles like 'to each his own' remain empty unless filled with aprioric material values. [Natura Humana, Values, and Existentialism in Law]: This section details various modern natural law approaches: the Thomistic 'natura humana' which provides a dynamic but universal basis for justice; the value-philosophical approach (Coing) which relies on an objective 'value feeling'; and the social-existential approach (Maihofer) which seeks the 'nature of the thing' within specific social roles and situations. [Historical and Cultural Dimensions of Natural Law]: Utz concludes the chunk by discussing natural law doctrines that incorporate historical and cultural dimensions. Thinkers like Fechner and Arthur Kaufmann view the 'absolute' not as a static norm but as the enduring human striving for self-realization within changing historical situations, creating a polar tension between the absolute and the relative. [Die theologischen Deutungen der Gerechtigkeit]: This section examines theological interpretations of justice, distinguishing between the Thomistic rational derivation of norms from God and eschatological views found in evangelical theology. It questions whether theological reason proceeds from universal contents to the concrete or focuses on individual responsibility before God. [Zur geplanten Reform des Rechtsstudiums in Deutschland: I]: Theodor Viehweg discusses the history and current state of German university reform, specifically regarding legal studies. He contrasts the early 19th-century neohumanist ideal of 'Bildung' (personality formation) with the modern industrial society's demand for 'Ausbildung' (professional/technical training), arguing that the shift toward the latter is irreversible but requires a new synthesis. [Zur geplanten Reform des Rechtsstudiums in Deutschland: II]: Viehweg explores the tension in legal education between technical mastery ('technology') and personal formation. He argues that while legal dogmatics serves to shield practitioners from the 'abyss' of the justice question for practical efficiency, a great jurist must ultimately be grounded in the humaniora to handle the inevitable breakthroughs of fundamental problems. [Zur geplanten Reform des Rechtsstudiums in Deutschland: III]: Viehweg proposes a concrete reform structure for German legal studies: an eight-semester program divided into a four-semester 'Grundstudium' (ending in a Baccalaureus juris) and a four-semester advanced study. He emphasizes the need for historical, sociological, and philosophical foundations to prevent legal indifference and to align with international standards. [An Adequate Philosophical Basis for American Liberalism]: René de Visme Williamson argues that modern American liberalism is in a precarious state due to its lack of a firm philosophical foundation. He contends that liberalism must move beyond secular individualism and return to its Christian roots—specifically the concepts of transcendence and the Holy Spirit—to find a basis for absolute values that avoids both bigotry and moral relativism. [Die Himmelsfahrt des Ch'ü Yüan: I]: Peter Weber-Schäfer compares the 'ascent to heaven' motif in Parmenides and the Chinese poet Ch'ü Yüan. He analyzes the Li-sao, showing how Ch'ü Yüan uses shamanistic imagery to express his political despair and his failed attempt to reach the sources of truth, contrasting this with the successful Greek transition from myth to philosophy. [Die Himmelsfahrt des Ch'ü Yüan: II]: This section examines the linguistic and ontological differences between Greek and Chinese thought. Weber-Schäfer argues that the Chinese language's lack of a single verb for 'to be' (using yu/wu instead) limited its ability to differentiate between Being and existence, leading to a different conceptualization of time, eternity, and the 'arche' compared to the Platonic-Aristotelian tradition. [An Unknown Pseudo-Democritean Fragment and the Muslim Unextended Atoms]: Harry A. Wolfson investigates the origins of the 'unextended atom' theory in Islamic Kalam. While often attributed to Indian influence, Wolfson argues it stems from distorted Greek doxographies. He identifies a pseudo-Democritean fragment in Isaac Israeli's 'De Elementis' that equates atoms with mathematical points, likely derived from loose interpretations of Aristotle's critiques. [Eric-Voegelin-Bibliographie: I. Selbständige Veröffentlichungen (1928–1959)]: A comprehensive bibliography of Eric Voegelin's independent publications from 1928 to 1959. It lists major works including 'Über die Form des amerikanischen Geistes', 'Rasse und Staat', 'The New Science of Politics', and the first three volumes of his magnum opus 'Order and History'. The list includes publication details such as publishers (Mohr, Springer, Bermann-Fischer, LSU Press, Kösel, Pustet), page counts, and edition notes. [Bibliography of Eric Voegelin: Articles (1922–1962)]: A chronological list of academic articles and essays published by Eric Voegelin between 1922 and 1962. The bibliography covers his early legal and sociological works in Vienna, his studies on American constitutionalism and economic theory, and his later influential essays on political myths, Gnosticism, the history of ideas, and the crisis of Western civilization. [Biographical Sketches of the Contributors]: Biographical profiles of the scholars who contributed to this Festschrift for Eric Voegelin. Each entry includes birth details, educational background, academic career milestones (including emigrations during the Nazi era), current professorial appointments as of 1962, and a list of major published books. Notable figures include Hannah Arendt, Rudolf Bultmann, and Carl Joachim Friedrich. [Index of Names]: A comprehensive alphabetical index of names mentioned throughout the volume 'Politische Ordnung und menschliche Existenz'. It includes historical figures, philosophers, theologians, and contemporary scholars cited in the essays and footnotes, ranging from classical antiquity (Plato, Aristotle) to modern political thinkers (Marx, Weber, Voegelin).
The front matter and preface for a Festschrift honoring Eric Voegelin on his 60th birthday. It outlines Voegelin's contributions to political science, specifically his development of a 'New Science of Politics' rooted in Platonic and Aristotelian ontology. The preface describes his transition from the school of Hans Kelsen to a more reality-oriented, non-positivist approach, highlighting his major work 'Order and History' and his exploration of symbols like myth, philosophy, and Gnosis.
Read full textA comprehensive table of contents listing the contributors and titles of the essays included in the Festschrift. The topics range from American geistesgeschichte and Greek history to legal philosophy, Marxism, and Islamic atomism, featuring prominent scholars such as Hannah Arendt, Rudolf Bultmann, and Hans Jonas.
Read full textHannah Arendt explores the concept of the 'pursuit of happiness' in the American tradition, distinguishing between private welfare and 'public happiness'—the joy found in political action and participation in public affairs. She contrasts the American experience of local assemblies with the theoretical 'public freedom' sought by French men of letters. Arendt argues that the tradition of political thought, influenced by Platonism, has often failed to articulate the intrinsic value of action, leading to a tension between the establishment of constitutional order and the preservation of the revolutionary spirit.
Read full textHans Barth introduces an analysis of Ernest Renan, focusing on his political-philosophical writings rather than his famous historical works on Christianity. He discusses Renan's view of Greek rational humanism and the specific role of the Jewish people in introducing the concept of a just God to human culture.
Read full textThis segment examines Ernest Renan's political and philosophical contributions during the 19th century, focusing on his advocacy for European federalism and intellectual freedom. It details his correspondence with David Friedrich Strauss during the Franco-Prussian War, where Renan critiques German nationalism based on race and language, proposing instead that a nation is a 'daily plebiscite' based on the will of the people. Renan warns of the dangers of ethnographic politics, predicting that such logic would eventually empower Pan-Slavism against Germany.
Read full textThe text explores Renan's later philosophical works, specifically 'Dialogues philosophiques' and 'L'Avenir de la science'. It describes Renan's shift from democratic optimism to a belief in a scientific elite or 'magistère'. Renan envisions a future where reason rules through absolute power and technological terror, suggesting that knowledge is power only when it can enforce its will. He expresses deep concern over the moral vacuum left by the collapse of traditional religious beliefs, wondering how a noble life can be sustained without 'ancient dreams'.
Read full textA transitional passage questioning the feasibility of Renan's scientific oligarchy. It raises the classic problem of 'Quis custodiet custodes?' (Who guards the guardians?) and argues that the ultimate challenge for all political and economic utopias is the education of just individuals to prevent the perversion of absolute power.
Read full textKarl Dietrich Bracher analyzes the spiritual and historical foundations of American democracy, arguing it is rooted in a unique 'sense of mission' (Sendungsbewusstsein). He traces this from Puritan 'Covenant' theology—viewing the New World as a 'City upon a Hill'—through the secularization of these ideas in the Enlightenment. Key figures like Cotton Mather, Jonathan Edwards, and Roger Williams are discussed to show how religious concepts of Providence were transformed into democratic principles of self-governance, pluralism, and universal human rights, distinguishing American democracy from European models.
Read full textArnold Brecht discusses the relationship between Eric Voegelin's religiously grounded history and the 'scientific value relativism' of the 20th century. Brecht defends the 'strict science' (scientia transmissibilis) which, while unable to prove metaphysical truths or absolute values like human equality, provides essential 'consolations' by clarifying the consequences of political choices. He argues that recognizing the limits of science forces individuals to accept personal moral responsibility for their values, which cannot be offloaded onto scientific certainty.
Read full textRudolf Bultmann contrasts the Greek cyclical and naturalistic view of history with the Christian linear and teleological perspective. While Greeks like Thucydides saw history as a repeating pattern of human nature, the Judeo-Christian tradition introduced the concept of a goal-directed history (Heilsgeschichte) governed by divine Providence. Bultmann highlights St. Augustine's discovery of the 'person' and 'will' as central to history, concluding that the meaning of history is found not in a grand overview of the past, but in the existential responsibility of the individual in the 'now'.
Read full textRafael Calvo-Serer provides a comprehensive survey of the literature surrounding the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). He analyzes how the conflict became a universal symbol for the struggle between democracy, fascism, and communism. The segment covers the 'Lost Generation' (Hemingway, Malraux), the disillusionment of former communists (Koestler, Spender, Orwell), and the perspectives of Catholic thinkers (Bernanos, Maritain, Campbell). Calvo-Serer argues that the war was a prelude to the Cold War and that its literary legacy reflects the 20th century's crisis of freedom and authority.
Read full textHenry Deku explores the 'Red and Brown' (Communist and Nazi) crisis of authority by tracing the decline of classical Natural Law. He contrasts the traditional view of the state as a servant of the human person and divine truth (Cicero, Aquinas) with the modern 'reason of state' and legal positivism. Deku argues that when the state loses its moral-rational foundation, it resorts to coercion and total claim over the individual, leading to the chronic political crises of the 19th and 20th centuries. He emphasizes that true authority is based on truth, not mere will or power.
Read full textThis segment explores the transition from religious to state-centered salvation, citing Moses Hess on the role of the state in fulfilling church promises. It critiques the shift from Platonic rational norms to a 'materialistic' attachment to the collective or the 'Thou,' leading to a pseudo-religious deification of social bonds and the loss of transcendent normative grounding.
Read full textThe author discusses how a lack of tradition and a purely factual education system have weakened intellectual resistance in Germany. Citing Hegel and Grillparzer, the text argues that the constant desire for historical reinterpretation and political experimentation leads to a loss of binding norms and a retreat into collective conformity.
Read full textThis section traces the origins of modern political crises to 18th and 19th-century German thought, specifically the anti-Western resentment found in Lessing, Herder, and Fichte. It analyzes the replacement of transcendent reason with irrational historical forces (History, Will, Life) and the subsequent shift from idealistic 'freedom' to the brutal 'Realpolitik' of the 19th century.
Read full textA detailed examination of Fichte's political and social prescriptions, contrasting his reputation as a philosopher of freedom with his proposals for a total surveillance state and a highly regulated 'Republic of Germans.' The text quotes extensively from Fichte's descriptions of mandatory identity passes, state-monitored movement, and a secularized, state-controlled church ritual involving cremation and civic 'sermons' by botanist-preachers.
Read full textThe author critiques the 'anti-humane' deification of the state in German Idealism, where the state becomes an idol and the source of its own authority. It traces the path from Fichte's immanentized divinity to Treitschke's glorification of war and power, arguing that this intellectual tradition replaced universal moral norms with historical necessity and 'academic gnosis.'
Read full textThis segment analyzes how legal positivism (Kelsen) and the 'heroic' socialism of thinkers like Sombart and Spengler prepared the academic ground for National Socialism. It argues that by separating law from ethics and defining law as a mere 'coercive order with any content,' German legal and political theory legitimized the absolute decisionism and brutality of the 20th-century dictatorships.
Read full textThis segment analyzes the intellectual dialogue between Karl Marx and Bruno Bauer regarding the 'Jewish Question' within the context of Young Hegelian radicalism. It explores how both thinkers utilized the Jewish Question as a symbol for a broader metaphysical revolution aimed at overcoming human alienation. While Bauer focused on the 'critical' destruction of religious consciousness, Marx deepened the critique by identifying the secular 'Jewish spirit' (egoism and money) as the core of the modern bourgeois state, arguing that true human emancipation requires the abolition of the social conditions that produce such alienation.
Read full textThe text examines the transition from rationalism to a formalistic and historical irrationalism, tracing the 'softening' of the spirit as it abandons eternal truths for historical necessity. It critiques thinkers like Heidegger and Spengler for their roles in legitimizing totalitarian ideologies (both 'Brown' and 'Red') through the glorification of 'hardness' and the 'destiny of history.' The author argues that this development is a gnostic perversion where man attempts self-salvation through the 'total mobilization' of life and the rejection of traditional morality.
Read full textAlois Dempf discusses the origins of high civilizations from a universal-historical perspective, moving beyond simple power-political or economic explanations. He explores the transition from primitive life-communities to institutionalized 'life-powers' characterized by a distinct intelligence (clergy and officials) and a symbolic legal culture. The segment highlights the role of monarchic theism and the development of 'right-knowledge' (Rechtswissen) as foundational elements that distinguish high cultures from earlier social forms.
Read full textFriedrich Engel-Janosi reflects on the state of contemporary historiography, contrasting the confidence of 19th-century historians like Ranke with the modern awareness of history's 'fragmentary' nature. He discusses the evolution of historical method, the influence of natural sciences on historical thinking, and the resurgence of universal history through figures like Spengler and Toynbee. The essay emphasizes that history is not merely a collection of facts but requires the 'imagination' to re-live the past and understand the interconnectedness of human events.
Read full textPeter J. Fliess draws a parallel between the bipolar power structure of the Peloponnesian War (Athens vs. Sparta) and the post-1945 international order. He argues that Thucydides' analysis of power dynamics, fear, and the inevitability of conflict in a bipolar system remains relevant for understanding the Cold War. The segment examines the difficulties of neutrality, the role of ideological 'constitutional conformity' as a tool for imperial control, and the persistence of the 'cold war' as a state where the line between peace and war is permanently blurred.
Read full textCarl J. Friedrich explores the concept of the 'political person' by defining five basic traits of human nature: communal living, adaptability, purposiveness, self-hood, and language. He rejects both rationalist overestimations and elitist dismissals of the 'common man,' arguing instead for a 'belief in the common man' based on the unpredictable distribution of political judgment and character. The segment posits that political communities are built on the interaction of 'selves' who use language to communicate purposes and adapt to changing situations.
Read full textJürgen Gebhardt examines the intellectual relationship between Karl Marx and Bruno Bauer, focusing on their transformation of Hegelianism into a gnostic political movement. The segment details how their debate over the 'Jewish Question' served as a vehicle for a 'metaphysical revolution' against the existing world order. Gebhardt traces the development of their thought from academic debate to revolutionary activism, highlighting how their 'secularization' of religious symbols led to a totalizing ideology that sought to recreate man and society through the destruction of traditional transcendence.
Read full textThis section explores the evolution of Jewish attitudes toward Roman rule from the period of Daniel to the Bar Kokhba revolt. It details the early expectation of a divinely mandated end to heathen rule and the establishment of a Jewish kingdom, contrasting this with the eventual recognition of Roman authority by figures like Josephus and Johanan ben Zakkai. The text highlights how the failure of active, political Messianism led to a significant modification in Jewish theory regarding the 'fourth kingdom' (Rome).
Read full textThe author discusses the theological shift where the greatness of Rome began to be viewed as part of a God-willed historical order. Speeches by Agrippa and Josephus suggest that authority was transferred from Israel to Rome by divine intent. The section examines how second-century masters like Simeon ben Yohai and Meir began to postpone the urgency of divine intervention, tacitly recognizing Rome's present dominion while maintaining a distant hope for ultimate restoration.
Read full textThis segment focuses on the 3rd-century school of Johanan bar Nappaha in Tiberias, which classicized the shift from militant, history-centered Messianism to a passivist, meta-historical doctrine. It lists the key disciples and contemporaries of Johanan, such as Simeon ben Lakish and Joshua ben Levi, and sets the stage for an analysis of talmudic-midrashic material that illustrates the changed Judaic image of Rome.
Read full textThe text examines how 3rd-century Jewish literature characterized Roman power, often identifying it as the 'fourth beast' of Daniel's vision. While acknowledging Rome's strength and its role in safeguarding the rights of men (dikaion), the masters also linked Rome's origin to Israel's own religious failings (e.g., Solomon's marriage to Pharaoh's daughter). The section notes a more nuanced view where God is seen as the creator of both Jews and Gentiles, tempering the desire for Rome's immediate destruction.
Read full textThis section describes the transition from an urgent, imminent Messianic expectation to a distant, hypothetical one. Masters like Johanan and Simeon ben Lakish argued that the time of the end was hidden by God, discouraging calculations of the 'end' and emphasizing patient waiting. The focus shifted from the historical Messianic period to the 'world to come' (olam ha-ba), which was viewed as the true and final redemption known only to God.
Read full textThe author explains how the 3rd-century masters reinterpreted the state of exile (galut) as a positive, divinely planned condition. Rather than seeking immediate liberation, they focused on the spiritual benefits of dispersion, such as the preservation of the people and the gaining of proselytes. Suffering was viewed as a means of purification and a way to turn Israel toward righteousness, with the present era seen as a time for exploring Israel's past rather than forcing a change in its political fate.
Read full textThis segment details the 3rd-century critique of man-made redemptions (such as those of the Hasmoneans) and the resulting advocacy for political passivity. Johanan and his school argued that true redemption must come from God alone, not 'flesh and blood.' This led to a disvaluation of prophecy in favor of divine action and a call for non-resistance against the 'four kingdoms.' In cases of religious coercion, the response was to be martyrdom rather than rebellion.
Read full textThe final section of the chunk discusses the shift in focus from the eschaton to the Revelation at Sinai. The study of Torah became the primary mode of spiritual existence, effectively replacing the urgency of historical redemption. The text also highlights the ethical teachings of the period, which emphasized 'hesed' (loving concern) and 'rahamim' (divine mercy) extending even to the heathen nations. The ultimate preservation of the world is attributed not to power, but to the innocence of children studying Torah.
Read full textThis segment explores the third-century Jewish theological shift toward withdrawal from the political world and the rejection of historical Messianism in response to Roman rule. It details the covenantal relationship between God and Israel, emphasizing Israel's isolation and its focus on the Torah as a means of survival. The text contrasts this Jewish 'extra-historical existence' with Christianity's alliance with Rome, noting how the Messianic idea was reinterpreted as a restoration of cosmic harmony outside of human political action.
Read full textAn analysis of the life and political thought of Ueki Emori, a key figure in the Japanese movement for freedom and people's rights (Jiyū Minken Undō) during the Meiji era. The essay describes the three phases of Meiji political development, Emori's education in Western sciences, and his advocacy for a representative parliament and natural rights. It highlights his intellectual conflicts with conservatives like Katō Hiroyuki and his imprisonment for criticizing the government's restrictions on free speech, specifically through his provocative article comparing autocracy to turning humans into monkeys.
Read full textThis essay examines the rise and subsequent 'disenchantment' of the modern secular intellectual, beginning with the 18th-century philosophes. It traces the shift from Christian/classical metaphysics to an anthropocentric doctrine of progress and rationalism. The author discusses precursors like Siger de Brabant and Joachim of Flora, the 'realism' of Machiavelli and Hobbes, and the eventual crisis of these ideals in the 20th century. Detailed case studies of Harold Laski's shift toward Soviet Communism and Albert Camus's critique of metaphysical revolt illustrate the contemporary struggle to find orienting standards after the 'death of God'.
Read full textDrawing on Gaetano Mosca's concept of the 'political formula,' this segment analyzes the theoretical foundations of political order and legitimacy. It argues that every state rests on an unprovable 'formula' (e.g., divine right, popular sovereignty) that must be believed by the governed to grant authority. The essay distinguishes between 'opposition' (fighting within the same formula) and 'resistance' (rejecting the formula itself). It also explores the tension between democracy and parliamentarism and the role of representation as a secularized theological concept.
Read full textA detailed philosophical interpretation of Plotinus's Ennead III 7. Hans Jonas examines the distinction between eternity (the life of the Intellect/Nus) and time (the life of the Soul). The text defines eternity as a simultaneous, infinite presence ('everything at once') and time as a successive unfolding or 'self-temporalization' of the Soul's life. Jonas highlights Plotinus's departure from classical physical definitions of time (as measure of motion) toward a spiritualized, internal origin, prefiguring modern existential and phenomenological concepts of temporality.
Read full textA collection of translated excerpts from Plotinus' Enneads (I 8, IV 7, IV 3, V 2) illustrating the relationship between the Soul (Allseele), the Intellect (Nus), and the material world. The texts describe the soul's descent from a state of pure contemplation of the Nus into a state of 'unboundedness' and 'darkness' as it creates and occupies the physical body and space. It highlights the soul's creative drive (orexis) and the hierarchical progression from the higher soul to the vegetative and animal souls (growth power), characterized by a movement away from the origin toward the 'worse'.
Read full textThis segment explores Plotinus's views on individual souls, their descent from the divine realm, and the origin of evil through 'tolma' (audacity). It discusses the soul's relationship to the body and its movement between the intelligible and sensible worlds, concluding an excursus on the nature of the soul.
Read full textA detailed analysis of Plotinus's theory of time as the life of the soul in movement. It contrasts time with eternity, argues that time is generated by the soul's activity, and discusses the relationship between the movement of the universe and the inner movement of the soul.
Read full textHeinz Laufer examines the state of political science in Germany and critiques Carl Schmitt's 'anthropological creed.' He analyzes Schmitt's fundamental distinction between friend and enemy, his pessimistic view of human nature as 'evil by nature,' and the connection between political theology and state theory.
Read full textLaufer continues his critique by contrasting Schmitt's views with the classical and Christian traditions. He references Eric Voegelin's restoration of philosophical anthropology to political science, discussing the 'mature man' in Aristotle, the 'amor Dei' vs. 'amor sui' in Augustine, and the 'decayed' anthropology of Hobbes that informs modern political thought.
Read full textLuis Legaz y Lacambra explores the tension between legal and religious existence. He contrasts Catholic natural law traditions with Protestant views on the secularization of law (Luther), discusses the 'unauthenticity' of the social sphere (Kierkegaard, Heidegger), and examines whether 'Christian law' is a coherent concept.
Read full textRené Marcic argues for the pre-positive legal value of human dignity and freedom. Drawing on Voegelin, Aristotle, and Aquinas, he posits that the order of being is inherently a legal order. He critiques legal positivism and voluntarism (Scotus, Hobbes, Nietzsche) in favor of a rationalist ontology where the state's power is limited by the inherent dignity of the person.
Read full textThis section explores the ontological rank of man within the cosmic order, arguing that human dignity is inviolable and immediate. It derives specific bioethical and legal prohibitions from this dignity, including bans on killing the unborn (nasciturus), artificial insemination, human experimentation, and the use of drugs or narco-analysis to manipulate the human psyche. The author warns against the 'perfect welfare state' described by Dostoevsky and Tocqueville, which threatens human dignity by smothering the conscience through total security and fulfillment of material desires.
Read full textThe author argues that human dignity requires that individuals be addressed through reason rather than force. Drawing on Aristotle and Aquinas, the text posits that 'to command is to persuade' (per modum suadentis), as man is a being defined by logos. While positive law may involve coercion, the ontological ideal is for the human will to be moved through conviction and appeal to the rational ground.
Read full textThis segment defines freedom not merely as a psychological state but as a fundamental 'building law' of the universe (Baugesetz des Universums). Using Thomistic thought, it argues that the hierarchy of being requires a category of existence capable of self-determination. Freedom is the point where macrocosmos and microcosmos meet. The text cites Anselm of Canterbury to show that rational nature preserves the cosmic order through free will (sponte) rather than necessity.
Read full textThe author discusses the 'transcausality' of God's action, which grants ontological autonomy to human freedom. Because God respects the order He created, even divine power (potestas ordinata) does not override human freedom. The text argues that if God Himself respects human freedom as a legal barrier, then no earthly community or state has the right to suppress it or treat it as a 'quantité négligeable'.
Read full textDrawing on the work of Ernst von Hippel, this section establishes freedom as a structural element of law. It argues that law does not logically or physically determine man but rather takes his freedom as its starting point. Freedom is the 'apriori' that constitutes the relationship between pre-positive and positive legal systems.
Read full textThis section traces the history of freedom in the West, beginning with the Greek 'polis' and the Roman 'libertas'. It explores the bond between the cosmic order (cosmos) and the political order (polis), where freedom is understood as self-legislation (autonomia). The author uses Heraclitus's Fragment 93 regarding the Delphic Oracle to illustrate how cosmic order provides signs without destroying the human freedom of decision, establishing freedom as the 'ratio' of the logos.
Read full textThe author outlines three aspects of political freedom: its relation to equality (isonomia), its integration within order, and its character as a form of unconstrained living (potestas vivendi ut velis). It critiques 'paleo-liberalism' for neglecting the social component of freedom. The section emphasizes the principle 'in dubio pro libertate' (in doubt, for freedom) and highlights the reciprocal relationship between individual and communal freedom.
Read full textThis final section of the chunk analyzes the political order through three questions: Who holds power? How is it exercised? And what are its legal limits? It distinguishes between legitimate rule (rule of law) and tyranny (quoad titulum or quoad exercitium). The author argues that the Western political tradition is defined by 'imperium limitatum'—the constant struggle against the omnipotence of the state. Key concepts discussed include subsidiarity, institutional pluralism, and the principle that laws, not men, should govern (nomocracy).
Read full textThis section explores the dignity and freedom of the human legislator within the framework of natural law and the divine order. It argues that while positive law is a product of human freedom and autonomy, it must respect pre-positive structural elements such as human dignity to remain legitimate. The text references Thomas Aquinas to illustrate the wide range of discretion granted to human lawgivers within the bounds of the order of being.
Read full textA concluding summary reflecting on the contemporary challenges to human dignity and freedom. It cites Eric Voegelin on the dangers of political apathy in a democracy and discusses new dimensions of rights, such as the right to an inner life and protection against psychological manipulation. The text argues that the state has a positive duty to shield the individual's dignity not only from public power but also from uncontrolled private and social forces, referencing dystopian visions by Orwell, Dostoevsky, and Tocqueville.
Read full textAn extensive analysis of the political thought and reform ideas of Baron vom Stein. The essay challenges the binary classification of Stein as either a pure rationalist or a reactionary opponent of the Enlightenment. Instead, it positions Stein within a tradition of moderate liberalism and empiricism influenced by Edmund Burke and the Göttingen school (Rehberg, Brandes). The text contrasts the 'natural law' radicalism of the French Revolution (Rousseau) with the 'empiricist' and historical approach of Stein and Burke, emphasizing Stein's belief in organic development and the use of historical institutions like estates (Stände) to achieve moral and political progress.
Read full textArmin Mohler analyzes the political structure of the French Fifth Republic, characterizing it as a 'one-man regime' centered on Charles de Gaulle. He argues that there is a massive gap between the regime's lofty ideology and its pragmatic, often stagnant reality. Mohler describes de Gaulle's unique 'political style'—using psychological shocks, oratory, and a method of 'intoxication' (planned obfuscation) to manage the liquidation of the French colonial empire (specifically Algeria) while maintaining the appearance of national grandeur. The essay concludes that while this style erodes civic trust, it also performs a necessary 'clearance' of outdated French ideologies.
Read full textGerhart Niemeyer traces the intellectual origins of 'revolution as a vocation' and the total critique of society back to Gracchus Babeuf and his 18th-century mentors: Jean Meslier, Morelly, and Mably. The essay argues that these thinkers moved beyond specific grievances to a 'gnostic' rejection of the entire existing social and moral order. Meslier's atheistic materialism and Morelly's 'Code of Nature' provided the framework for viewing historical society as a 'false' reality that must be totally destroyed to recover a hidden natural order. Niemeyer distinguishes Mably's reformist socialism from the radical, destructive 'permanent revolution' of Meslier and Babeuf, which ultimately leads to totalitarian power and terror.
Read full textGeorg Pfligersdorffer examines the early Christian struggle with the Roman environment through the lens of the biblical maxim 'No one can serve two masters.' He discusses the critique of Celsus, who saw Christian monotheism as a 'voice of rebellion' against the traditional order of 'sub-gods' (national demons/genii) that legitimized the Roman state. The essay traces the evolution of this conflict from the intransigence of the martyrs to the political theology of Eusebius and finally to Augustine's 'City of God.' Augustine is presented as restoring the necessity of choice between the 'love of self' (earthly city) and the 'love of God' (heavenly city), rejecting the idea of a neutral 'human city' or a state-sanctioned synthesis of divine and worldly authority.
Read full textThis essay analyzes Max Weber's struggle with the tension between ethics and politics. It situates Weber in opposition to the 19th-century German tradition of 'Realpolitik' (Treitschke) and the hypostasization of the state (Hegel). Schmülz examines Weber's concepts of 'Value Freedom' (Wertfreiheit) and the 'Idealtypus,' noting that Weber's science was limited by his inability to access a rational order-science. The core of the essay is the distinction between the 'Ethics of Conviction' (Gesinnungsethik) and the 'Ethics of Responsibility' (Verantwortungsethik). Weber argues that the politician must embrace the latter, accepting the 'diabolical' nature of power and the responsibility for the consequences of their actions, even when using morally suspect means to achieve good ends.
Read full textA brief introductory segment or quote regarding Heinrich Leo's views on the German Reich and national morality, framing the Reich as an 'invisible' spiritual necessity for the German people.
Read full textThis section provides a general appreciation of Heinrich Leo (1799–1878), a complex historian who blended Lutheran orthodoxy with Hegelian and Romantic influences. The author, Hans Joachim Schoeps, compares Leo to Leopold von Ranke, noting that while Leo lacked Ranke's source-critical methodology, his passionate subjectivity and 'Höllen-Breughel' style made his historical narratives uniquely memorable. The segment also discusses Leo's 'Lehrbuch der Universalgeschichte' and his philosophical intention to present history as the revelation of divine thoughts from a Christian standpoint.
Read full textLeo's historical value judgments regarding the German early period and the Middle Ages are analyzed. His ideal is the 'Germanic-Christian state' of the High Middle Ages, characterized by a priestly-feudalist corporate structure. Leo consistently sides with the Papacy over the Emperors in the Investiture Controversy, praising Pope Gregory VII while harshly criticizing Frederick II as an 'unpious' precursor to the modern centralized state. The section highlights Leo's use of 'philosophie engagée' to critique modern developments from a medievalist standpoint.
Read full textThis segment examines Leo's controversial views on the Reformation. Despite being a Protestant, Leo critiques the Reformation for destroying the organic authority of the Church and the apostolic succession of bishops, which he views as a 'Germanic' institution. He draws a direct line from the Reformation's rejection of authority to the French Revolution. The section includes psychological portraits of Savonarola and Jan Hus, as well as Leo's 'völkerpsychologische' (ethno-psychological) reflections on the differences between Germanic and Slavic peoples in the context of the Hussite movement.
Read full textLeo's treatment of the 16th-century religious wars is marked by a defense of legitimacy and the House of Habsburg. He views the Dutch Revolt not as a struggle for religious freedom but as a 'deplorable insurrection' driven by mercantile interests and a restless nobility. He justifies the actions of the Duke of Alba and shows little sympathy for William of Orange. Similarly, he interprets the French Wars of Religion through the lens of French 'petulance' and political interest rather than pure theology.
Read full textThis segment continues the analysis of Heinrich Leo's historical perspectives, focusing on his critical view of the Reformation in France, Sweden, and Ireland, as well as his unconventional assessment of the Thirty Years' War. Leo interprets these events through the lens of political interests rather than purely religious motives, offering a particularly harsh critique of Gustav Adolf as a foreign interventionist who damaged German national interests. He also provides surprising praise for Oliver Cromwell as a pious figure, while maintaining a generally skeptical stance toward the 'Protestant heroes' of history.
Read full textLeo examines the modern era, viewing the French Revolution as a necessary but horrific punishment for the 'lies' of the Ancien Régime, while criticizing Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Montesquieu. He identifies the rise of the Prussian state and its army as the only positive development in modern history, emphasizing Prussia's non-confessional character and the moral energy of Frederick William I over Frederick the Great. The segment also details the fierce contemporary criticism Leo faced from Karl Friedrich Köppen (a friend of Karl Marx) regarding his polemical and allegedly plagiarized style.
Read full textThe final assessment of Heinrich Leo characterizes him as a 'partisan historian' who used history to issue moral judgments and influence contemporary politics, in contrast to Ranke's objective approach. Leo's ultimate goal was an 'Evangelical Catholicity'—a reunification of the Christian churches based on the Augsburg Confession, which he believed was the only path to overcoming the spiritual decay of the modern world. His historical revisions of the Reformation and the Dutch Revolt were intended to remove the 'blind hatred' between confessions and pave the way for this reconciliation.
Read full textGregor Sebba introduces the concept of the artwork as a 'Cosmion,' a term borrowed from Eric Voegelin. He begins by analyzing the 'thing-character' of art, using the anecdote of a found stone to illustrate how any object possesses an infinite field of potential meanings and structures. Sebba argues that an artwork is a well-ordered 'order of orders' (complexity) that exists both internally (its physical and historical structure) and externally (its relationship to its environment and observers).
Read full textSebba defines complexity as the 'order of orders' within an artwork, distinguishing between internal complexity (form and content) and temporal complexity (historical context). He introduces the 'climactic line method' for interpretation, suggesting that a single point in a work can reveal its entire structural law. He also discusses the problem of 'rank,' arguing that higher-ranking artworks possess greater internal structural complexity and invariance across time, allowing for richer interpretations than simpler works like folk songs or 'Yankee Doodle.'
Read full textSebba explores 'Order' as the aspect of artistic law that distinguishes art from accidental forms. He argues that the creation of a complex artwork is not a calculated process but the incarnation of a pre-existing 'order-idea' or 'work-law' (Werkgesetz) that can even incorporate chance. This law is synonymous with 'Style,' which Sebba defines as the individual essence and structural unity of the work. The segment concludes by linking the theory of the artwork to broader doctrines of creation and genetics, moving beyond mere aesthetics.
Read full textThis section explores 'Intensity' as the defining characteristic that distinguishes an artwork from a mere object. The author argues that the experience of art is an immediate identification that confronts the observer's internal, often chaotic universe with the 'well-ordered' cosmion of the artwork. This encounter is described as an epiphany of pure order that fundamentally changes the observer, moving beyond mere rational analysis or emotional 'Ergriffenheit' (being moved).
Read full textThe author discusses the artwork as a 'cosmion'—a particle of reality that is perfectly ordered, contrasting it with the 'stubborn facts' of the experienced world. The validity of an artwork is not found in a correspondence theory of truth but in its internal order. Even non-art objects or philosophical systems, like Spinoza's 'more geometrico', can be experienced as artworks when they appear as an epiphany of pure order.
Read full textThis section examines the relationship between the creator, the artwork, and the observer's ego. Art is defined as an 'act of establishment' that restructures human experience into a stable form. The author argues that significant art often anticipates new modes of sensibility, requiring the observer to 'learn' the experience before the work becomes transparent. Ultimately, the encounter with art is an existential and religious act, forcing a decision between the lower order of habitual life and the higher order of the artistic cosmion.
Read full textArthur-Fridolin Utz introduces a systematic investigation into how social life norms become legal norms. He defines law as an enforceable order of peace and poses the central question of legal philosophy: what are the norms of this peace order? He states his intention to categorize possible legal philosophies rather than individual authors.
Read full textUtz analyzes the distinction between natural law and positive law from a Thomistic perspective. For Aquinas, law is an adjustment between people based either on the 'nature of the thing' (natural law) or on agreement/authority (positive law). Utz notes that from this realist standpoint, any philosophy rejecting universal essences (moderate realism) is effectively positivist, including historical or sociological legal theories.
Read full textUtz defines modern legal positivism as the view that law is derived solely from empirical sources (biological drive, social pressure, or state power) without being limited by aprioric ethical norms. He distinguishes between individual-ethical and social-ethical positivism, noting that legal positivism necessarily implies social-ethical positivism. He also discusses Kelsen's 'Grundnorm' as a logical postulate that remains within the positivist framework despite its aprioric appearance.
Read full textNatural law is defined as a legal foundation that recognizes an aprioric idea of justice above effective social norms. Utz uses the post-war German legal debate over Nazi-era judges and cases involving public morality (e.g., the Sade affair and German Federal Court rulings on sexual morality) to illustrate how courts appeal to 'unalterable commands of the moral law' even when they seek to anchor these in positive sources.
Read full textUtz begins a systematic overview of different natural law traditions. He discusses the 'dignity of the person' as a foundational material value (referencing Kant's categorical imperative) and contrasts it with the individualistic-rationalist catalogues of rights from the Enlightenment. He argues that purely formal principles like 'to each his own' remain empty unless filled with aprioric material values.
Read full textThis section details various modern natural law approaches: the Thomistic 'natura humana' which provides a dynamic but universal basis for justice; the value-philosophical approach (Coing) which relies on an objective 'value feeling'; and the social-existential approach (Maihofer) which seeks the 'nature of the thing' within specific social roles and situations.
Read full textUtz concludes the chunk by discussing natural law doctrines that incorporate historical and cultural dimensions. Thinkers like Fechner and Arthur Kaufmann view the 'absolute' not as a static norm but as the enduring human striving for self-realization within changing historical situations, creating a polar tension between the absolute and the relative.
Read full textThis section examines theological interpretations of justice, distinguishing between the Thomistic rational derivation of norms from God and eschatological views found in evangelical theology. It questions whether theological reason proceeds from universal contents to the concrete or focuses on individual responsibility before God.
Read full textTheodor Viehweg discusses the history and current state of German university reform, specifically regarding legal studies. He contrasts the early 19th-century neohumanist ideal of 'Bildung' (personality formation) with the modern industrial society's demand for 'Ausbildung' (professional/technical training), arguing that the shift toward the latter is irreversible but requires a new synthesis.
Read full textViehweg explores the tension in legal education between technical mastery ('technology') and personal formation. He argues that while legal dogmatics serves to shield practitioners from the 'abyss' of the justice question for practical efficiency, a great jurist must ultimately be grounded in the humaniora to handle the inevitable breakthroughs of fundamental problems.
Read full textViehweg proposes a concrete reform structure for German legal studies: an eight-semester program divided into a four-semester 'Grundstudium' (ending in a Baccalaureus juris) and a four-semester advanced study. He emphasizes the need for historical, sociological, and philosophical foundations to prevent legal indifference and to align with international standards.
Read full textRené de Visme Williamson argues that modern American liberalism is in a precarious state due to its lack of a firm philosophical foundation. He contends that liberalism must move beyond secular individualism and return to its Christian roots—specifically the concepts of transcendence and the Holy Spirit—to find a basis for absolute values that avoids both bigotry and moral relativism.
Read full textPeter Weber-Schäfer compares the 'ascent to heaven' motif in Parmenides and the Chinese poet Ch'ü Yüan. He analyzes the Li-sao, showing how Ch'ü Yüan uses shamanistic imagery to express his political despair and his failed attempt to reach the sources of truth, contrasting this with the successful Greek transition from myth to philosophy.
Read full textThis section examines the linguistic and ontological differences between Greek and Chinese thought. Weber-Schäfer argues that the Chinese language's lack of a single verb for 'to be' (using yu/wu instead) limited its ability to differentiate between Being and existence, leading to a different conceptualization of time, eternity, and the 'arche' compared to the Platonic-Aristotelian tradition.
Read full textHarry A. Wolfson investigates the origins of the 'unextended atom' theory in Islamic Kalam. While often attributed to Indian influence, Wolfson argues it stems from distorted Greek doxographies. He identifies a pseudo-Democritean fragment in Isaac Israeli's 'De Elementis' that equates atoms with mathematical points, likely derived from loose interpretations of Aristotle's critiques.
Read full textA comprehensive bibliography of Eric Voegelin's independent publications from 1928 to 1959. It lists major works including 'Über die Form des amerikanischen Geistes', 'Rasse und Staat', 'The New Science of Politics', and the first three volumes of his magnum opus 'Order and History'. The list includes publication details such as publishers (Mohr, Springer, Bermann-Fischer, LSU Press, Kösel, Pustet), page counts, and edition notes.
Read full textA chronological list of academic articles and essays published by Eric Voegelin between 1922 and 1962. The bibliography covers his early legal and sociological works in Vienna, his studies on American constitutionalism and economic theory, and his later influential essays on political myths, Gnosticism, the history of ideas, and the crisis of Western civilization.
Read full textBiographical profiles of the scholars who contributed to this Festschrift for Eric Voegelin. Each entry includes birth details, educational background, academic career milestones (including emigrations during the Nazi era), current professorial appointments as of 1962, and a list of major published books. Notable figures include Hannah Arendt, Rudolf Bultmann, and Carl Joachim Friedrich.
Read full textA comprehensive alphabetical index of names mentioned throughout the volume 'Politische Ordnung und menschliche Existenz'. It includes historical figures, philosophers, theologians, and contemporary scholars cited in the essays and footnotes, ranging from classical antiquity (Plato, Aristotle) to modern political thinkers (Marx, Weber, Voegelin).
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