[Front Matter and Table of Contents]: Front matter for Volume 3 of 'Wiener Beiträge zur Geschichte der Neuzeit', titled 'Formen der europäischen Aufklärung'. Includes editorial information, publication details from 1976, and a detailed table of contents covering essays on religion, education, science, and the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas in Europe. [Preface: Forms of European Enlightenment]: The editors' preface outlines the volume's focus on the Enlightenment as a diverse, pan-European phenomenon with specific regional manifestations, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe. It argues against viewing the Enlightenment solely as a Western European import, emphasizing instead how ideas were adapted to local social, religious, and political contexts. The preface also provides a brief overview of the individual contributions regarding dechristianization, pastoral theology, educational reform in Poland and Austria, and the role of journals and intellectual networks. [Dechristianization? A Conceptual History Investigation]: Moritz Csáky examines the concept of 'déchristianisation' (dechristianization) within French historiography and its limited reception in German scholarship. He traces the term's evolution from early conspiracy theories (Barruel) to political-defense arguments (Aulard) and social-patriotic conflicts (Mathiez). The essay distinguishes between 'terrorist/revolutionary dechristianization' (state-led anti-clericalism) and 'objective dechristianization' (long-term shifts in mentalities and religious practice). Csáky highlights the roles of urbanization, communication networks, and the shift from traditional theology to a religiously-grounded anthropology, ultimately questioning if the term is a misnomer for a more complex process of secularization. [Papists or Roman Catholic Citizens? Tolerance and Early Catholic Emancipation]: Introduction to Ludwig Hammermayer's study on the transition of the legal and social status of Catholics in the British Isles during the 18th century. The work explores the shift from the derogatory label 'Papists' to the recognized status of 'Roman Catholic Citizens' through the lens of tolerance and early emancipation efforts. [The Preparation Phase: Foundations of Catholic Emancipation before 1778]: This section examines the preparatory phase of Catholic emancipation in the British Isles from the early 18th century to 1778. It analyzes the structural differences between the Catholic communities in England, Scotland, and Ireland, highlighting the role of the 'Exile Church' on the continent in preserving the faith. The author identifies three key factors driving emancipation: Enlightenment thought (including Freemasonry and academic movements), military-strategic requirements for manpower, and the socio-economic shifts caused by the Industrial Revolution. Edmund Burke is introduced as a pivotal figure and advocate for the gradual repeal of the discriminatory Penal Laws. [The English Catholic Community and the Crisis of Loyalty]: An analysis of the internal dynamics and social integration of English Catholics under the Penal Laws. The text explores the persistent conflicts between secular and regular clergy (especially Jesuits) and the fundamental question of dual loyalty to the Pope and the British Crown. It details Bishop John Stonor's early, revolutionary attempts to arrange terms with the Hanoverian government by renouncing the Stuarts. The section also discusses the relative failure of Jansenism in England and the gradual shift in the Catholic social base from the landed gentry to the rising middle classes and Irish immigrants, culminating in Bishop Richard Challoner's leadership. [Catholicism in Scotland: Jacobitism and the Scottish Enlightenment]: This segment focuses on the unique challenges of Scottish Catholicism, characterized by the ethnic and economic divide between the Highlands and Lowlands. It traces the impact of the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745, which led to the political declassification of Catholics as suspected traitors. However, the text argues that the Scottish Enlightenment and the economic boom following the Union of 1707 created a climate of growing tolerance. The leadership of Bishops George Hay and John Geddes is highlighted as instrumental in stabilizing the mission and integrating Catholics into the intellectual and social life of Edinburgh and Glasgow, despite ongoing issues like forced conversions and mass emigration to America. [Ireland: Practical Emancipation and the Catholic Committee]: The text examines the early stages of Catholic emancipation in Ireland, where Catholics formed the vast majority. It describes the rise of a loyalist Catholic middle class and the formation of the 'Catholic Committee' in 1756. The narrative explains how the British government's need for soldiers during global conflicts with France led to the suspension of certain Penal Laws. It also details the complex relationship between the 'Protestant Ascendancy' (seeking autonomy from London) and the Catholic majority. A major turning point was the 1774 Oath of Allegiance, which split the Irish clergy into 'ultramontane' and 'gallican' factions but paved the way for legal recognition. [The First Catholic Relief Bills (1778–1793)]: This extensive section covers the legislative breakthroughs of the Catholic Relief Bills in England, Ireland, and Scotland between 1778 and 1793. It analyzes the 1778 Act in England and the subsequent backlash of the Gordon Riots (1780). The text explores the internal Catholic 'Cisalpine' movement, which sought to minimize papal influence to gain full citizenship. In Ireland, the narrative follows the escalation of demands for the franchise, the influence of the French Revolution, and the founding of Maynooth College as a state-subsidized seminary. The section concludes with the 1793 Relief Acts across the islands and the 1800 Act of Union, noting that while full political rights were delayed, the fundamental shift from 'Papists' to 'Roman Catholic Citizens' had been established. [Church and Preaching in the Enlightened State: Josephinism in Austria]: Gottfried Mraz examines the nature of Josephinism and Catholic Enlightenment in the Habsburg lands. He discusses the historiographical debate between viewing Josephinism as a genuine religious reform versus a tool of state absolutism. A central focus is the creation of 'Pastoral Theology' as a new academic discipline by Abbot Franz Stephan Rautenstrauch, which aimed to train priests as 'servants of the state' and 'teachers of the people' rather than just scholastic theologians. The text analyzes how textbooks by authors like Franz Giftschütz integrated religious duty with civic obedience, effectively making the clergy part of the state bureaucracy while promoting a form of practical, though not necessarily dogmatic, tolerance. [Changes in the Polish Educational System in the 18th Century]: Stanisław Litak details the transformation of Polish education from a church-dominated system to a state-supervised national structure. He traces the decline of Jesuit schools and the rise of the Piarists, led by Stanisław Konarski, who introduced modern subjects and civic education. The centerpiece of the section is the 1773 Commission of National Education (KEN), described as the first ministry of education in Europe. The KEN secularized and uniformized schools, replaced Latin with Polish as the language of instruction, and emphasized natural sciences, mathematics, and moral philosophy. The reform of the universities in Kraków and Vilnius into 'Main Schools' is also discussed as a vital part of national rebirth. [Despotism and Science: North German Criticism of Austrian Universities]: Grete Klingenstein explores the divergence between the Austrian university model and the North German (Protestant) model during the Enlightenment. While universities like Göttingen moved toward 'Lehr- und Lernfreiheit' (freedom of teaching and learning), Austrian universities were transformed into state-controlled training centers for civil servants and professionals. The author argues that this 'despotism'—characterized by state-appointed study directors, mandatory textbooks, and rigid examination systems—was a response to Austria's need for rapid modernization and the lack of an independent secular intellectual class. The text highlights the criticism from figures like Schlözer and Nicolai, who viewed the Austrian system as a hindrance to true scientific progress. [The Discussion on the Longitudinal Extension of Asia in the 18th Century]: Johannes Dörflinger reconstructs the 18th-century scientific debate regarding the eastern extent of the Asian continent. The controversy pitted Gerhard Friedrich Müller (representing the Russian Academy) against the Swiss geographer Samuel Engel. Engel accused the Russians of artificially 'stretching' Asia eastward to discourage other nations from seeking a Northeast Passage. The text follows the evolution of maps from the Bering expeditions to the theoretical models of Vaugondy and Buache. The dispute was finally resolved by James Cook's third voyage (1778), which provided precise astronomical measurements confirming the Russian data and proving that Asia extended much further east than Engel had claimed. [Journals and Society in Reform-Era Italy]: Giuseppe Ricuperati analyzes the shift in Italian journalism from the 'learned journals' of the early 18th century to the militant, socially engaged periodicals of the Enlightenment. He examines the influence of the English 'Spectator' model on Gaspare Gozzi's 'Gazzetta veneta' and Giuseppe Baretti's 'Frusta letteraria'. A major focus is 'Il Caffè', the organ of the Milanese 'Accademia dei pugni', which introduced political economy, legal reform, and natural sciences into public discourse. The section also traces the reception and translation of the French 'Encyclopédie' in Italy (Lucca and Livorno editions) and how the term 'encyclopedic' became synonymous with enlightened reformism. [The Role of Italians in the Cultural Life of Vienna]: Elisabeth Garms-Cornides investigates the influential circle of Italian and Italian-educated intellectuals in 18th-century Vienna. She highlights the role of Celestino Galiani as a teacher to Austrian aristocrats (like the Harrachs) and the presence of figures like Giannone, Muratori, and Metastasio. The text describes how this milieu served as a catalyst for Austrian reform Catholicism and the introduction of Western European (especially English and French) ideas. It details the activities of the Court Library, the 'Accademia' in the house of Karl Firmian, and the strong anti-Jesuit sentiment that united these thinkers. The section concludes with an analysis of the 1756 university inauguration festschrift, illustrating the deep integration of Italian academic culture in Vienna. [A. L. Schlözer and His Hungarian Followers]: Éva H. Balázs examines the profound influence of the Göttingen professor August Ludwig Schlözer on Hungarian political and intellectual life. Schlözer's lectures on statistics and 'politics' (state science) and his journal 'Staatsanzeigen' were widely consumed by Hungarian Protestant students, including József Podmaniczky and Gergely Berzeviczy. The text describes how Schlözer's critical stance toward Joseph II's 'despotism' and his support for constitutional rights shaped the Hungarian opposition. However, the relationship soured during the 1790 Diet when Schlözer condemned the Hungarian nobility's defense of class privileges over human rights. Despite this, his methodological rigor and physiocratic ideas remained foundational for the next generation of Hungarian reformers. [Contributors and Table of Contents]: Biographical sketches of the contributors (Balázs, Csáky, Dörflinger, Garms-Cornides, Hammermayer, Klingenstein, Litak, Mraz, Ricuperati) and the detailed table of contents for the volume 'Formen der europäischen Aufklärung'.
Front matter for Volume 3 of 'Wiener Beiträge zur Geschichte der Neuzeit', titled 'Formen der europäischen Aufklärung'. Includes editorial information, publication details from 1976, and a detailed table of contents covering essays on religion, education, science, and the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas in Europe.
Read full textThe editors' preface outlines the volume's focus on the Enlightenment as a diverse, pan-European phenomenon with specific regional manifestations, particularly in Central and Eastern Europe. It argues against viewing the Enlightenment solely as a Western European import, emphasizing instead how ideas were adapted to local social, religious, and political contexts. The preface also provides a brief overview of the individual contributions regarding dechristianization, pastoral theology, educational reform in Poland and Austria, and the role of journals and intellectual networks.
Read full textMoritz Csáky examines the concept of 'déchristianisation' (dechristianization) within French historiography and its limited reception in German scholarship. He traces the term's evolution from early conspiracy theories (Barruel) to political-defense arguments (Aulard) and social-patriotic conflicts (Mathiez). The essay distinguishes between 'terrorist/revolutionary dechristianization' (state-led anti-clericalism) and 'objective dechristianization' (long-term shifts in mentalities and religious practice). Csáky highlights the roles of urbanization, communication networks, and the shift from traditional theology to a religiously-grounded anthropology, ultimately questioning if the term is a misnomer for a more complex process of secularization.
Read full textIntroduction to Ludwig Hammermayer's study on the transition of the legal and social status of Catholics in the British Isles during the 18th century. The work explores the shift from the derogatory label 'Papists' to the recognized status of 'Roman Catholic Citizens' through the lens of tolerance and early emancipation efforts.
Read full textThis section examines the preparatory phase of Catholic emancipation in the British Isles from the early 18th century to 1778. It analyzes the structural differences between the Catholic communities in England, Scotland, and Ireland, highlighting the role of the 'Exile Church' on the continent in preserving the faith. The author identifies three key factors driving emancipation: Enlightenment thought (including Freemasonry and academic movements), military-strategic requirements for manpower, and the socio-economic shifts caused by the Industrial Revolution. Edmund Burke is introduced as a pivotal figure and advocate for the gradual repeal of the discriminatory Penal Laws.
Read full textAn analysis of the internal dynamics and social integration of English Catholics under the Penal Laws. The text explores the persistent conflicts between secular and regular clergy (especially Jesuits) and the fundamental question of dual loyalty to the Pope and the British Crown. It details Bishop John Stonor's early, revolutionary attempts to arrange terms with the Hanoverian government by renouncing the Stuarts. The section also discusses the relative failure of Jansenism in England and the gradual shift in the Catholic social base from the landed gentry to the rising middle classes and Irish immigrants, culminating in Bishop Richard Challoner's leadership.
Read full textThis segment focuses on the unique challenges of Scottish Catholicism, characterized by the ethnic and economic divide between the Highlands and Lowlands. It traces the impact of the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745, which led to the political declassification of Catholics as suspected traitors. However, the text argues that the Scottish Enlightenment and the economic boom following the Union of 1707 created a climate of growing tolerance. The leadership of Bishops George Hay and John Geddes is highlighted as instrumental in stabilizing the mission and integrating Catholics into the intellectual and social life of Edinburgh and Glasgow, despite ongoing issues like forced conversions and mass emigration to America.
Read full textThe text examines the early stages of Catholic emancipation in Ireland, where Catholics formed the vast majority. It describes the rise of a loyalist Catholic middle class and the formation of the 'Catholic Committee' in 1756. The narrative explains how the British government's need for soldiers during global conflicts with France led to the suspension of certain Penal Laws. It also details the complex relationship between the 'Protestant Ascendancy' (seeking autonomy from London) and the Catholic majority. A major turning point was the 1774 Oath of Allegiance, which split the Irish clergy into 'ultramontane' and 'gallican' factions but paved the way for legal recognition.
Read full textThis extensive section covers the legislative breakthroughs of the Catholic Relief Bills in England, Ireland, and Scotland between 1778 and 1793. It analyzes the 1778 Act in England and the subsequent backlash of the Gordon Riots (1780). The text explores the internal Catholic 'Cisalpine' movement, which sought to minimize papal influence to gain full citizenship. In Ireland, the narrative follows the escalation of demands for the franchise, the influence of the French Revolution, and the founding of Maynooth College as a state-subsidized seminary. The section concludes with the 1793 Relief Acts across the islands and the 1800 Act of Union, noting that while full political rights were delayed, the fundamental shift from 'Papists' to 'Roman Catholic Citizens' had been established.
Read full textGottfried Mraz examines the nature of Josephinism and Catholic Enlightenment in the Habsburg lands. He discusses the historiographical debate between viewing Josephinism as a genuine religious reform versus a tool of state absolutism. A central focus is the creation of 'Pastoral Theology' as a new academic discipline by Abbot Franz Stephan Rautenstrauch, which aimed to train priests as 'servants of the state' and 'teachers of the people' rather than just scholastic theologians. The text analyzes how textbooks by authors like Franz Giftschütz integrated religious duty with civic obedience, effectively making the clergy part of the state bureaucracy while promoting a form of practical, though not necessarily dogmatic, tolerance.
Read full textStanisław Litak details the transformation of Polish education from a church-dominated system to a state-supervised national structure. He traces the decline of Jesuit schools and the rise of the Piarists, led by Stanisław Konarski, who introduced modern subjects and civic education. The centerpiece of the section is the 1773 Commission of National Education (KEN), described as the first ministry of education in Europe. The KEN secularized and uniformized schools, replaced Latin with Polish as the language of instruction, and emphasized natural sciences, mathematics, and moral philosophy. The reform of the universities in Kraków and Vilnius into 'Main Schools' is also discussed as a vital part of national rebirth.
Read full textGrete Klingenstein explores the divergence between the Austrian university model and the North German (Protestant) model during the Enlightenment. While universities like Göttingen moved toward 'Lehr- und Lernfreiheit' (freedom of teaching and learning), Austrian universities were transformed into state-controlled training centers for civil servants and professionals. The author argues that this 'despotism'—characterized by state-appointed study directors, mandatory textbooks, and rigid examination systems—was a response to Austria's need for rapid modernization and the lack of an independent secular intellectual class. The text highlights the criticism from figures like Schlözer and Nicolai, who viewed the Austrian system as a hindrance to true scientific progress.
Read full textJohannes Dörflinger reconstructs the 18th-century scientific debate regarding the eastern extent of the Asian continent. The controversy pitted Gerhard Friedrich Müller (representing the Russian Academy) against the Swiss geographer Samuel Engel. Engel accused the Russians of artificially 'stretching' Asia eastward to discourage other nations from seeking a Northeast Passage. The text follows the evolution of maps from the Bering expeditions to the theoretical models of Vaugondy and Buache. The dispute was finally resolved by James Cook's third voyage (1778), which provided precise astronomical measurements confirming the Russian data and proving that Asia extended much further east than Engel had claimed.
Read full textGiuseppe Ricuperati analyzes the shift in Italian journalism from the 'learned journals' of the early 18th century to the militant, socially engaged periodicals of the Enlightenment. He examines the influence of the English 'Spectator' model on Gaspare Gozzi's 'Gazzetta veneta' and Giuseppe Baretti's 'Frusta letteraria'. A major focus is 'Il Caffè', the organ of the Milanese 'Accademia dei pugni', which introduced political economy, legal reform, and natural sciences into public discourse. The section also traces the reception and translation of the French 'Encyclopédie' in Italy (Lucca and Livorno editions) and how the term 'encyclopedic' became synonymous with enlightened reformism.
Read full textElisabeth Garms-Cornides investigates the influential circle of Italian and Italian-educated intellectuals in 18th-century Vienna. She highlights the role of Celestino Galiani as a teacher to Austrian aristocrats (like the Harrachs) and the presence of figures like Giannone, Muratori, and Metastasio. The text describes how this milieu served as a catalyst for Austrian reform Catholicism and the introduction of Western European (especially English and French) ideas. It details the activities of the Court Library, the 'Accademia' in the house of Karl Firmian, and the strong anti-Jesuit sentiment that united these thinkers. The section concludes with an analysis of the 1756 university inauguration festschrift, illustrating the deep integration of Italian academic culture in Vienna.
Read full textÉva H. Balázs examines the profound influence of the Göttingen professor August Ludwig Schlözer on Hungarian political and intellectual life. Schlözer's lectures on statistics and 'politics' (state science) and his journal 'Staatsanzeigen' were widely consumed by Hungarian Protestant students, including József Podmaniczky and Gergely Berzeviczy. The text describes how Schlözer's critical stance toward Joseph II's 'despotism' and his support for constitutional rights shaped the Hungarian opposition. However, the relationship soured during the 1790 Diet when Schlözer condemned the Hungarian nobility's defense of class privileges over human rights. Despite this, his methodological rigor and physiocratic ideas remained foundational for the next generation of Hungarian reformers.
Read full textBiographical sketches of the contributors (Balázs, Csáky, Dörflinger, Garms-Cornides, Hammermayer, Klingenstein, Litak, Mraz, Ricuperati) and the detailed table of contents for the volume 'Formen der europäischen Aufklärung'.
Read full text