Die wirtschaftstheoretischen Grundlagen des modernen Kapitalismus von Sombart

[Title Page and Dedication]: The title page and dedication of Gustav Adolf Groß's critical investigation into the theoretical foundations of Werner Sombart's 'Modern Capitalism', written from a social-individualist economic perspective. [Preface: Theoretical Framework and the Influence of Robert Liefmann]: In the preface, Groß acknowledges the influence of Robert Liefmann's theory on his critique of Sombart. He justifies using Liefmann's framework based on three pillars: the distinction between technique and economy, the systematic understanding of money-making (Geldertragsstreben), and the explanation of social exchange through an individual principle. He asserts his independence by stating the work serves to verify Liefmann's theories against reality. [Table of Contents: Introduction and Chapter I]: The table of contents outlining the introduction and the first chapter. The first chapter focuses on the 'Misinterpretation of Money-making' (Geldertragsstreben), covering the nature of money as a medium of exchange, the psychological-abstract economic principle, and the formal nature of economic planning. [Table of Contents and Introduction: Scope and Methodology of Sombart's Work]: The segment provides the detailed table of contents for the second and third chapters and the conclusion. The introduction outlines the scope of Werner Sombart's 'Der Moderne Kapitalismus', noting its dual nature as both a monograph on a historical individual and a universal history of European economic life. Gross discusses Sombart's 'double-view' methodology, which alternates between empirical-historical description and theoretical-abstract construction. The author clarifies that his own investigation will focus strictly on Sombart's economic theory rather than his historical accuracy or philosophical foundations. [Chapter 1, Section 1: The Nature of the Profit Motive]: Gross critiques Sombart's view that the pursuit of money (Geldertragsstreben) is a biologically or historically acquired 'drive' external to the essence of economic life. Sombart argues that the capitalist spirit, characterized by the pursuit of profit and power, broke into the organic community from the outside. Gross counters this by arguing that the pursuit of money is not a primary drive but a rational 'intermediate purpose' (Zwischenzweck) within the general framework of satisfying needs. He asserts that money is a means to an end, and the desire for it is fundamentally linked to the ultimate economic goal of utility/satisfaction. [Chapter 1, Sections 2-3: The Abstract Nature of Money and Value]: This section refutes Sombart's identification of money with precious metals. Gross argues that gold production is not a prerequisite for capitalism but is itself conditioned by capitalist exchange. He critiques Sombart's functional definition of money (measuring, transferring, and storing value), pointing out a logical rift between money as a concrete object and money as an abstract unit of account. Gross concludes that money is essentially an abstract unit of measurement linked to a commodity or symbol, serving as both a price unit and a carrier of purchasing power, born from the collective will of economic subjects to facilitate exchange. [Chapter 1, Sections 4-6: The Economic Principle and Risk Mitigation]: Gross defines the economic principle as the pursuit of maximum psychological gain (pleasure) with minimum psychological cost (pain). He argues that Sombart's focus on 'material goods' is too narrow, as economic activity covers all needs, including spiritual ones. The development of money is explained as a rational response to the risk of plan changes; money allows subjects to postpone specific consumption decisions, thereby reducing potential losses in psychological utility. Gross rejects Sombart's idea of changing 'economic spirits' (Wirtschaftsgeist), asserting that the economic principle is a formal, timeless law of reason, while only the contents of the plans (needs and means) change over time. [Chapter 2, Sections 7-9: Critique of the Institutional Economic Concept]: Gross critiques Sombart's 'institutional' view, which equates the economy with a set of organized systems (Wirtschaftssysteme) like handicraft or capitalism. Sombart views the economy as a cultural institution similar to the state or church. Gross argues that this focus on 'enterprises' and 'labor organizations' leads Sombart to neglect natural (non-monetary) exchange and the legal status of individuals. Gross asserts that 'economic systems' are not subjects of exchange; rather, individual economic subjects (whether rich or poor) are the true actors. The difference between systems is merely the degree of separation between consumption and acquisition, not a fundamental change in economic logic. [Chapter 2, Sections 10-12: The Economy as an Adjustment Process]: Gross argues that the economy is not an 'institution' with a central guiding idea, but a decentralized process of mutual adjustment between individual plans. He critiques Sombart's 'theory of conditions', which treats the state, technology, and population as external foundations of capitalism. Instead, Gross views these as factors that individuals incorporate into their subjective 'situations'. Capitalism is defined not as a historical subject or a specific organization, but as a 'situation type' where propertyless workers depend on capital owners. Economic crises are seen as disruptions in this total adjustment process of supply and demand across all markets. [Chapter 3, Sections 13-14: Capital and the Labor Theory of Value]: Gross examines Sombart's definition of capital as the 'material substrate of the capitalist enterprise'. Sombart adopts a version of the labor theory of value, defining surplus value (Mehrwert) as the difference between the total labor value produced and the wages paid. Gross critiques the 'mystical' nature of this value concept, which Sombart attempts to bridge using double-entry bookkeeping as a 'quantification process'. The author points out a fundamental confusion in Sombart's work between money quantities and physical goods, leading to a circular logic where capital formation is both the cause and effect of production expansion. [Chapter 3, Sections 15-16: Commercial vs. Autonomous Economy]: Gross distinguishes between three methods of acquiring means: autonomous (force/robbery), commercial (exchange), and charitable (gifts). He argues that exchange is unique because it recognizes the subjectivity of the partner and breaks 'technical causality'—allowing one to obtain a good without performing the specific labor required to produce it. Capital is defined as 'money made into a means of acquiring money'. Unlike Sombart, who sees capital as a production factor, Gross views it as a 'potentiated commerce' where money is substituted for money through the market, rather than a simple extraction of labor value. [Chapter 3, Sections 17-18 and Conclusion: Technology vs. Economy]: The final section of the chunk distinguishes between technical and economic thinking. Technical thinking is the choice of means for a given end, while economic thinking involves a direct comparison of psychological costs and benefits. Gross critiques Sombart for confusing these by treating 'capital turnover' and 'productivity' as inherent economic drives. He argues that profitability (Rentabilität) is the quantitative analog to the psychological economic principle. The conclusion introduces a critique of 'rationalization' and 'objectification' (Versachlichung), promising to show that the economy can only be understood by strictly separating technology, quantitative economy, and psychological economy. [The Production-Technical Conception of Acquisition and Rationalization]: Gross critiques Sombart's view of rationalization as a production-technical process. Sombart argues that capitalist acquisition is bound to specific technical means and that 'economic rationalism' can be artificially generated by experts and inserted into a business like clockwork. Gross rejects this, asserting that the goal of money-making is not technically-causally bound to its means, and critiques Sombart's use of the 'optimal plant size' as an unproven assertion of inherent rationality in the nature of things. [The Acquisition-Economic Conception of Production and Productivity]: This section examines Sombart's concept of productivity, arguing that he mistakenly projects exchange-economic categories onto production-technical processes. Gross contends that 'productivity' is actually a statistical fiction or a matter of rentability rather than a physical property of labor. He critiques Sombart's theory of surplus value and 'value-productivity' as mysticism, suggesting that what Sombart calls productivity increases are actually just improvements in substitution ratios (economic technique). [Mathematical Numbers and Calculative Use in Double-Entry Bookkeeping]: Gross attacks Sombart's comparison of double-entry bookkeeping to the scientific systems of Galileo and Newton. Sombart views accounting as a scientific quantification of an underlying economic cosmos. Gross argues this is a fundamental misunderstanding: money figures are not mathematical numbers in a natural-scientific sense but are tools of 'calculative' practical reason used for shifting values (substitution). He clarifies that prices are not objective measurements of a quality like 'exchange value' but are directions for practical action. [The Alleged Transformation of the Human Type and Social Mechanization]: Gross critiques Sombart's historical narrative of the transformation from 'traditionalist' to 'rationalist' man. Sombart identifies symptoms of rationalization in everything from house numbering to stock exchanges. Gross argues that these external signs do not prove a change in human spirit or intellect; the same tool can be used rationally by a creator or thoughtlessly by a follower. He concludes that Sombart fails to prove a fundamental change in the human type, confusing technical progress with a shift in subjective rationality. [Economic Principles as Factors of Uniformity and the Law of Marginal Returns]: In the concluding section, Gross contrasts Sombart's view of the economy as an organized system with Robert Liefmann's 'social-individualist' approach. He argues that the drive for yield (Ertragsstreben) is a universal human trait, not a capitalist invention. Using Liefmann's law of the equalization of marginal returns, Gross explains that the social order of the market (exchange traffic) is not a technical organization but a formal result of individual subjective economic plans. The market achieves a 'form' analogous to an individual's psychic-abstract plan through the competition and substitution of means. [Bibliography]: A brief list of primary literature for further study of Robert Liefmann's economic system and the theoretical foundations of capitalist accounting by Karl Skokan.